Organ System Nat Sci2

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Module 9

ORGAN

SYSTEMPATHWAYS


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The Ten Major Organ Systems

Body covering or integument protection fromthe environment

Skeletal system support (and protection) of

the bodyMuscular system movement and locomotion

Digestive system reception and preparationof food

Circulatory system transport of materialsRespiratory system exchange of oxygen and

carbon dioxide


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The Ten Major Organ Systems

Excretory system disposal of organicwastes and excess fluid

Endocrine glands or system regulation of

internal processes and adjustments toexterior environment

Nervous System (and sense organs) regulation of internal processes andadjustments to exterior environment.

Reproductive system production of newindividuals.


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IntegumentarySystem I

nclude the sk

in and its modifications orderivatives.

Integument:

It serves mainly forprotection and covering

Other functions include:a. Sensation - contains millions of nerve endings.

b. body temperature regulation sweat producedby sweat glands evaporates to cool the skin when

it is hot. Blood vessels also expand so that moreblood comes near the surface, releasing heat tomake the body cooler. If body is cold, bloodvessels contract to conserve heat.


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c. Excretion sweat also contains extra saltand water as released through perspiration.

d. synthesize Vitamin D- skin containscholesterol which can be converted bysunlight into vit. D, necessary for mineralabsorption and bone development.

The first line of defense against pathogens-skin protects the body from microorganismscausing infection and disease.

Substances produced by the skin such aspigments also protects the body fromharmful ultraviolet rays of the sun.


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IntegumentarySystem

It is composed of the outer, thinner layer

called the epidermis, and the inner thicker

layer called the dermis.

Beneath the two major layers is the

hypodermis or subcutaneous layer, made

up chiefly of adipose tissue or fat cells.


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Invertebrate Integument:

Protozoans

Covered by cell membrane.

Paramecium is covered with a firm elasticpellicle.

Worms and arthropods secretes an external,non cellularcuticle as additional covering.

Snails secretes an exoskeleton ofshell.

Arthropods cuticle is toughened by chitin, acarbohydrate which is water proof by a waxynon chitinous outer layer of lipoprotein,cuticulin.


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Insects there is sclerotization which is

the formation of a highly resistantand insoluble protein, sclerotin.

Molting outer portion of the skin is

shed, the new cuticle is thickened andcalcified or sclerotized.


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Vertebrate Integument:

Made up ofepidermis derived fromectoderm and an inner thickerdermis derived from the mesoderm.

Epidermis gives rise to derivativessuch

a. Hair c.Claws

b. Feather d. Scalesc. Nail f. hooves


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Dermis gives rise to :

a. Fish scalesb. Antlers of deer

Dermis contains:a. blood vessels e. fat cells

b. Collagenous fibers f. fibroblasts

c. Nervesd. Pigment cells


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Keratin a tough fibrous proteinaccumulates in the interior of the cells.

All metabolically active cytoplasm is replacedgradually by keratin. Cell dies and eventuallyshed.

Process is called keratinization and thetransformed is said to be cornified.

Stratum corneum is consists of cornifiedcells which are highly resistant to abrasion

and water diffusion. Areas exposed to pressure or friction such as

calluses in human palms and soles havethick epidermal layer.


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Scales embedded in the dermis.

Kinds of fish scales:a. placoid- sharks

b. Cycloid- bagus, tilapia

c. Ctenoid ayungind. Ganoid - garpike

Birds:

Covered by feathersMammals:

Covered with hair.


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Hair and feathers are nonliving

cornified products of the epidermisthat:

a. conserve body heat,

b. protect against abrasion,c. smooth contours and

d. provide streamlining.


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Sweat glands in humans cools the body.

Sebaceous glands- secretes a fatty, oilysubstance that keeps the skin and hair

pliable.

Subcutaneous fats in seals and whales

insulate the body and keep it warm.

Pigment is scattered throughout the skin

and is concentrated in the epidermis.

Human skin has scanty hair which suggeststhat man originated in a warm environment.


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Chromatophores- special pigment scatteredthrough the layers of the epidermis in

mammals. Melanin a group of black and brown

pigments.

Melanophores melanin deposited ingrowing hair giving colors to mammals.

Xanthophores - causes yellow and redcolors.

Iridiophores contain crystals of guanineand other purine. With silvery or metalliceffect.


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Skin derivatives:

1. Glands2. Hair

3. Feathers

4. Scales5. Claws

6. Nails

7. Horns8. Antlers


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Three kinds of Horns:

1.True horns found in ruminants; consists ofhollow sheaths of hardened epidermis which

fit over a core of bone arising from the skull.

Found in both sexes.

2. Antlers entirely bone in the mature

condition but during the growth period have a

covering of a vascular hairy epidermis which

is velvet; gradually worn away. Shedannually. Restricted to males.


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All claws, nails and hoofs are keratinized

epidermal structures.

Claw shaped to cover the sides, top and tip

of a terminal point.

Nail flattened and covers the dorsal surface

of the distal phalange Hoof extends across the end of the digit

and covers the plantar surface.


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In the horse, the hoof is

developed from the claw of onetoe, is the only part of the foot

touching the ground.

Others have spongy pads or other

parts of the foot on which to walk.


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The Epidermis

The epidermis has an outer layer of dead

cells (stratum corneum), and an inner layer

of epithelial and dividing cells (statum

germinativum).

Melanocytes are cells which produce the

pigment cells called melanin.

It has no blood vessels and nerves.


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The Dermis

Consist of a delicate layerof fine fibers

supporting the epidermis and reticular layer,

which consists of a dense network of coarse

and elastic fibers.

It also consist of hair follicle, sebaceous and

sweat glands, blood vessels, and nerve

endings.


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Crosssection ofthe skin


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SKELETAL

SYSTEM


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This is composed of:

1. Bones

2. Joints where two bones meet

3. Connective tissues hold the bone

together.


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The Skeletal System - The main

frameworkofth

e body.Functions:

Protects delicate organs such as the brain,

heart, and lungs. Provide attachments for muscles, hence

aid in bodily movements.

Manufacture blood cells

-bone marrow

Store mineral salts, calcium, and

phosphate.


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Skeletal SystemTwo types of skeletal

system:

Exoskeleton-

located outside the

body Endoskeleton-

found inside the

body

Two main divisions:

1. Axial

2. Appendicular


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The Axial Skeleton- bones whichare

found near oratth

e mainaxis ofth

e body Skull or cranium

Vertebral column which is divided

into:a. cervical (neck),

b. thoracic (chest),

c. lumbar (lower back),d. sacrum (fused bones), and

e. caudal (tail vertebrae or coccyx in

man .


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Ribs: 12 pairs include 7 true ribs, 3

false ribs, and 2 floating ribs.

Sternum or breastbone Mandible

Thoracic basket or thoracic cage-

which contains lungs, heart and theliver.


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The thoracic basket


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The Appendicular Skeleton- two girdles

withthe limbsattached to them

The bones of the pectoral girdle:

a. scapulae or shoulder blades and

b. the clavicle or collar bones.

The bones of the upper limbs/forelimbs:

a. humerus (upper arm bone),

b. radius and ulna (lower arm bones),c. carpals (wrist bones),

d. metacarpals (palm bones), and

e. phalanges or bones of the digits or fingers.


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The Appendicular Skeleton

The bones of the pelvic girdle:

a. ilium,

b. ischium, and

c. pubis.

The bones of the hindlimbs or lower appendagesinclude:

a. femur(thigh bone),

b. tibia and fibula (shank or leg bones),

c. tarsals (ankle bones),d. metatarsals (feet or sole bones), and

e. phalanges (toe bones).


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Skeletal System

JointsKinds of Joints:

1. Freely movable (diarthroses) joints such ashinge joints and ball-and-socket joints.

2. Slightly movable (amphiarthroses) jointssuch as the pubic symphysis.

3. Immovable ( synarthroses) joints such as

joints in the roof of the skull Tendons connect muscles with bones

Ligaments connect bone to anotherbone.


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Kinds of Freely Movable Joints;

1. Ball and Socket joint acetabulum and

head of femur; glenoid fossa and the head

of the humerus.

2. Hinge joint knee and the elbow

3. Gliding joint - found at the wrist

4. Pivot joint one that attaches the two bones

of the forearm at the elbow, enables bones

to rotate around each other.


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Bone Structure:

Periosteum membrane that covers the bonewhere small blood vessels branch out.Bollodmoving through these vessels carries

nutrients to the bone and takes away wastes.Spongy bone has many spaces and is found

in the ends of long bones and in the middlespaces.

Compact bone with few spaces and is densewhich provides support in long bones as inhumerus and femur.


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Red Bone Marrow material that produces

blood cells.

Yellow bone marrow mostly of fat cells often

found in the cavities within shafts of long

bones.

Haversian canal- circular channels throughwhich nerves and blood vessels.

Osteoblasts make the new bone cells

needed for growth and repair.


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Fetal skeleton is mostly of cartilage, a tough ,

flexible connective tissue, which is mostly

replaced by bone at the same time the babyis born.

As the baby grows, most of the remaining

cartilage is replaced by harder bones.Bone replaces cartilage until a person is 25

years old.

Cartilage in the ears, tip of the nose, and the

cushions of the vertebrae of the spine

persists throughout life.


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Injuries and Disorders:

1. Sprained ankle- joint is twisted and the

ligaments and tendons are injured.2. Bursitis results when an injury causes too

much fluid to move into the bursae ( fluid-filled sacs in joints). Joints swell and tender.

3. Arthritis - disease of joints to becomeinflamed and painful.

4. Broken bone and fractures- results fromaccidents.

Bones heal over time with proper medicalattention cause periosteum produces newbone cells.


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MUSCULAR

SYSTEM


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MUSCULAR SYSTEM

Main Function: movement and locomotion.1. Move the skeletal muscles

2. Keep the heart beating

3. Enable internal organs to do their work. Skeletal muscles attached to bones

Parts of the muscle:

1.origin- part which is immovable2. insertion- movable part

3. Belly- fleshy part of the muscle


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Functions oractions of muscles: responsible for

the different movements produced.

Action of muscles:

1. work together (synergism) or

2. work against each other (antagonism)

Three types of muscles:1. Skeletal attached to bones

2. Smooth involuntary muscle of the internal

organs.3. Cardiac - muscles of the heart


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Two types of Muscle action:

1. Voluntary under conscious control.

2. Involuntary not under conscious control.Skeletal Muscles

Attached to the bones.

Voluntary

With striations. Do not undergo cytokinesis after mitosis- nucleus

divides but the cell does not.

Long fibers with many nuclei.

More mitochondria. Contraction moves apart of the skeleton to which it

is attached.


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Smooth Muscles

Involuntary muscles of internal organs.

Not under conscious control.

Controlled partly by the nervous system and

partly by the hormones of the endocrine

system. Each muscle cell contains one nucleus and is

not striated.

Found in the intestine, stomach and blood

vessels


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Cardiac Muscles

Striated and voluntary

Works slowly and constantly without

stimulation from the nervous system although

nervous system can affect the heartbeat.


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Structure ofa muscle fiber

Sarcolemma, sarcoplasm, and nuclei. Myofibrils individual contractile units

Fine structures of the myofibrils: light bands (I

bands), and dark bands (A

bands) Sarcomere the functional unit of a myofibril.

Myofilaments much smaller parallel units of the

myofibril.

Two kinds ofmyofilaments: actin and myosin.


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DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Complex series of organs and glands that

processes food to make them simple and

absorbable by our cells.

Involves processes such as:

1. Ingestion

2. Mastication

3. Digestion

4. Absorption


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DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

5. Circulation

6. Assimilation

7. Oxidation

8. Excretion

9. Egestion


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Components ofthe Digestive System

1. Accessory parts

2. Digestive glands

3. Digestive tube oralimentary canal


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The AccessoryParts of Digestive System

1. Lips

2. Teeth

3. Tongue


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The Digestive Tube

1.Mouth the anterioropening of the

digestive tube for the

entrance of food.

2. Oral Cavity the

space internal to the

mouth where

mastication or grindingof food takes place.


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The Digestive Tube

3. Pharynx the most posterior portion ofthe oral cavity where it serves a dualfunction: for passage of air into the glottis,

and for the passage of food into theesophagus.

4. Esophagus the tube which connectsthe pharynx with the stomach. It serves forthe passage of food with a peristalticmovement.


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Diagrammatic illustration of motor events

ofswallowingreflex.


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The Digestive Tube

4. Stomach J-shaped hollow

muscular organ.

- Highly acidic- Partial digestion takes place.

- Parts include: fundus, cardiac end,

pyloric end, rugae, greater curvature,lesser curvature


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The Digestive Tube

- Chyme

- Churning

- Pyloric andesophagealsphincter

- Pepsin digests

protein- Gastric acid,

mostly HCl


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The Digestive Tube

5. Small intestines

divided into 3

regions:

duodenum,

jejunum, and the

ileum.


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The Digestive Tube

5. Small intestine it is about 6 meters

long.

- villi, lined with columnar epithelium

- final digestion and absorption of fats,

proteins, and carbohydrates takes place

- substances secreted into and by the small

intestines include bile, pancreatic juice,

intestinal juice which contain enzymes.


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The Digestive Tube

6. Large intestine portion whichextends from the ileum to the anus.

- also called colon.

- it is divided into ascending colon,transverse, and descending colon,sigmoid colon, and rectum.

- receives approximately 10 liters of water perday. 1.5 liters is from food and 8.5 liters isfrom secretions into the gut. 95% of thiswater is reabsorbed.


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The Digestive Tube


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The Digestive Tube

7. Anus the posterior opening of the

digestive tube.

- it serves for the exit of waste products of

digestion.


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The Digestive Glands

1. Salivary Glands parotid glands produce

a serous, watery

secretion

submaxillary(mandibular) glands

produce a mixed serous

and mucous secretion

sublingual glandssecrete a saliva that is

predominantly mucous in

character


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2. Liver

- the largest gland in the human body.

- It produces bile, a substance which

emulsifies fats.

- plays a major role in metabolism and has a

number of functions in the body, including

glycogen storage, decomposition of red bloodcells, plasma protein synthesis, and

detoxification.


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The liver


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The Digestive Glands3. Pancreas

- It is both exocrine (secretingpancreatic juice containingdigestive enzymes) andendocrine (producing several

important hormones, includinginsulin, glucagon, andsomatostatin).

- It also produces digestiveenzymes that pass into the

small intestine. These enzymeshelp in the further breakdown ofthe carbohydrates, protein, andfat in the chyme.


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4. Gastric glands

- Branched tubular glands lying in the

mucosa of the fundus and body of the

stomach; such glands contain parietal

cells that secrete hydrochloric acid,

zymogen cells that produce pepsin, and

mucous cells.


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The Digestive glands

5. Intestinal glands

-secrete various

enzymes, including

sucrase and maltase,along with

endopeptidases and

exopeptidases


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DIGESTIVE SYSTEM


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Enzymesinvolved in Digestion

polysaccharides maltose

glucose proteins peptides amino acids

fats fatty acids and glycerol


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Respiratory

System


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Respiratorysystem

The primary function of the respiratory

system is to supply the blood with oxygen in

order for the blood to deliver oxygen to all

parts of the body This is done through breathing.

Breathing involves the mechanical act of

inhalation and exhalation.


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Parts ofthe RespiratorySystem:

A. Upper respiratory tract1. Nose

2. Nasal cavity

3. Pharynxa. nasopharynx

b. oropharynx

4. Larynx or voice box, which contains thevocal cords


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Parts ofthe RespiratorySystem

B. Lower Respiratory tract

1. Trachea or windpipe - filters the air webreathe and branches into the bronchi.

2. Bronchi - two air tubes that branch off ofthe trachea and carry air directly into the

lungs.

3. Bronchioles


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C. Lungs

- are the main organs of the respiratory

system.

- Alveoli are the millions of tiny compartments

of the lungs where exchange of oxygen and

carbon dioxide takes place.

- Pleural cavity- Pleura


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Diaphragm

- a dome-shaped

muscle at the

bottom of the lungs

- main muscle used

in breathing

h f Ai f i h


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Pathwayof Air from Environmentto the

Lungs:

Air enters the nostrils

passes through the nasopharynx, to

the oral pharynx

through the glottis, then the larynx

, into the trachea

into the right and left bronchi, which branches andrebranches into

bronchioles, each of which terminates in a clusterof

alveoli

l A k d


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FrequentlyAsked Questions

Why Do I Yawn?

When you are sleepy or drowsy the lungs

do not take enough oxygen from the air. This

causes a shortage of oxygen in our bodies.The brain senses this shortage of oxygen and

sends a message that causes you to take a

deep long breath---a YAWN.

F l A k d Q i


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Why Do ISneeze?

Sneezing is like a cough in the upper

breathing passages. It is the body's way of

removing an irritant from the sensitivemucous membranes of the nose. Many things

can irritate the mucous membranes. Dust,

pollen, pepper or even a cold blast of air are

just some of the many things that may cause

you to sneeze.

F l A k d Q i


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What Causes Hiccups?

Hiccups are the sudden movements of the

diaphragm. It is involuntary --- you have no

control over hiccups, as you well know. Thereare many causes of hiccups. The diaphragm

may get irritated, you may have eaten to fast,

or maybe some substance in the blood could

even have brought on the hiccups.


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CIRCULATORY

SYSTEM

F i f h Ci l S


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Functions ofthe CirculatorySystem

moves nutrients, gases, and wastes to and

from cells,

helps fight diseases and

helps stabilize body temperature and pH

to maintain homeostasis

C f h Ci l


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Components of the Circulatory

System

A. The Blood

B. The Blood

VesselsC. The Heart

Th H


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The Heart

Muscular organ in all vertebrates

responsible for pumping blood through the

blood vessels by repeated, rhythmic

contractions The term cardiac (as in cardiology) means

"related to the heart" and comes from the

Greek ,kardia

, for "heart."

Th H


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The Heart

The heart of a vertebrate is composed of

cardiac muscle, an involuntary muscle

tissue which is found only within this

organ.

The average human heart beating at 72

BPM, will beat approximately 2.5 billion

times during a lifetime spanning 66 years.

Th S f h H


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The Structure of the Heart

Th Bl d


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The Blood

a specialized bodily fluid that delivers

necessary substances to the body's

cellssuch as nutrients and oxygenand

transports waste products away fromthose same cells.

composed ofblood cells suspended in a

liquid called blood plasma.

Th Bl d


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The Blood

Plasma

comprises 55% of blood fluid, is mostly water

(90% by volume)

contains dissolved proteins, glucose, mineral

ions, hormones, carbon dioxide (plasma

being the main medium for excretory product

transportation), platelets and blood cellsthemselves

Th Bl d


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The Blood

Blood cells mainly red blood

cells(erythrocytes)

and white bloodcells(leukocytes),and platelets

(thrombocytes).

Th Bl d


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The Blood

Th Bl d V l


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The Blood Vessels

transport blood throughout the body.

Capillaries the microscopic vessels which

enable the actual exchange of water and

chemicals between the blood and the tissues,

Arteries, carry oxygenated blood away from

the heart.

Veins, carry oxygen-poor blood towards theheart

S t i i l ti i th ti f th


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Systemic circulation is the portion of the

cardiovascular system which carries

oxygenated blood away from the heart, tothe body, and returns deoxygenated blood

back to the heart.

The coronary circulatory systemprovides a blood supply to the heart. As it

provides oxygenated blood to the heart, it

is by definition a part of the systemic

circulatory system.

Pulmonary circulation is the portion of the


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Pulmonary circulation is the portion of thecardiovascular system which carries oxygen-

depleted blood away from the heart, to thelungs, and returns oxygenated blood back tothe heart.

De-oxygenated blood enters the right atrium of

the heart and flows into the right ventriclewhere it is pumped through the pulmonaryarteries to the lungs. Pulmonary veins returnthe now oxygen-rich blood to the heart, whereit enters the left atrium before flowing into theleft ventricle. From the left ventricle theoxygen-rich blood is pumped out via the aorta,

and on to the rest of the body.

Amazing Fact


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AmazingFact

If you took all of the blood vessels out of an

average child, and laid them out in one line,

the line would be over 60,000 miles long! An

adult's vessels would be closer to 100,000miles long!

Organ System Nat Sci2

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