Urban Morphology (2010) 14(2), 111-20 © International Seminar on Urban Form, 2010 ISSN 1027-4278

The study of urban form in Poland

Marek Koter and Mariusz KuleszaKatedra Geografii Politycznej i Studiów Regionalnych, Uniwersytet ºódzki,

Kopcinskiego 31, 90-418 ºódï, Poland. E-mail: mariusz.kulesza@wp.eu

Revised version received 16 June 2010

Abstract. Research on the historical geography of settlements in Poland hasits beginnings in studies by economic historians at the end of the nineteenthcentury. During the inter-war period research on the geography of cities andon their historical geography in particular was developing slowly. Amongworks devoted to settlement geography, as many as nine out of ten wereconcerned with rural settlements. After the Second World War urban studiesadvanced considerably. Today the morphology of cities is a subject of interestto a relatively small group of researchers in Poland, Wroclaw and ºódï beingthe only significant research centres. Morphogenetic studies of urban centrespredominate. Metrological-historical studies have lost favour.

Key Words: urban morphology, urban historical geography, urbanstructure, Poland

The field of study now known as urbanmorphology had its Polish origins in thenineteenth century within urban historicalgeography. At the time, Poland was part-itioned between Prussia, Austria and Russia.Progress in science in Poland was part of thewider development of knowledge occurring inthe occupying states, mainly Germany andAustria. Early attempts were made at form-ulating topics within the field of urbangeography. They were mainly descriptive andsuperficial in content – largely concerned withaspects of urban structure, directly visibleexternally. These included the physiognomyof town structure and building materials usedfor walls and roofs. Some historical contextwas provided. The work was mainly byresearchers from Pozna½ and Cracow. Theywere influenced by the German school ofgeography, notably the work of F. Ratzel(1882, p. 605) and O. Schlüter (1899a, 1899b).This led to the popularization of the broadlydefined topic of urban morphology. EarlyPolish works were those by the historians F.Bujak (1902, p. 221) and K. Potka½ski (1922-

1924, pp. 479, 478). They were concernedwith both urban and rural settlements.

The first urban geographical research onPoland that had a solid empirical basis wasarguably in the 1920s. It was influenced byresearch on urban landscapes in France at thattime. Some studies, such as those by S.Gorzuchowski (1936a, 1936b) and S.Leszczycki (1932, 1936), utilized spatialstatistics, while others, including the works ofW. Rewie½ska (1934, 1937, 1938, p. 144,1939a, 1939b) and T. Kubijowicz (1927),focused on the physiognomic-functional layoutof towns. The study of Cracow’s division intohistorico-geographical and physiognomic-functional zones presented by M. Mrazkówna(1924) was the first of its kind in Poland.

Another popular research stream wasconcerned with the geographical andtopographical location of towns, including theconnection between location and the riversystem of Poland. These subjects were studiedby M. Kie»czewska (1939) and M.Kie»czewska-Zaleska (1947a, 1947b, 1953), A.Malicki (1937), J. Dylik (1939) and others.

112 The study of urban form in Poland

Z. Simche was also an important figure ofthe period. In 1930 he published a geo-graphical monograph on the city of Tarnow,including a landscape plan (Simche, 1930).This study was considered exemplary at thetime. Simche also created a methodologicalbasis for the study of urban physiognomy(Simche, 1928).

The physiognomic approach was criticizedin 1929 by urban historian O. Sosnowski asbeing too behavioural (Sosnowski, 1930). Herecognized that the development of a city is aresult of multiple factors – natural, historical,political, economic and social – and that acomprehensive analysis of urban structurerequired not only critical observation of thepresent, but also getting to know the historicaldevelopment of a city, especially usinghistorical maps and plans.

A reaction to Sosnowski’s standpoint cameat the end of the 1930s and was most clearlyreflected in the study by O. Kossmann entitled‘Rys geograficzny planu miasta ºódzki’(‘Geographical outline of the city plan ofºódï’) (Kossmann, 1930), in which the citywas divided into morphogenetic units,although the actual term ‘morphogenetic’ wasnot used at that time. The new approach wasexpressed on a larger scale in the works of W.Rewie½ska (1938, 1939a) which wasconcerned with the typology of cities andtowns in north-eastern Poland.

This promising morphological researchstream came to a halt with the outbreak of theSecond World War. After the war, in the newpolitical and social reality of the communistperiod, studies of the geography of productionbecame a preferred research path. Settlementstudies, especially historico-geographicalstudies, were marginalized. Their gradualrebirth was related to the contribution of K.Dziewo½ski, an urban geographer, who notonly incorporated within geography theachievements of urban historical studies, butalso created the basis for the development ofurban historical geography in Poland. Heestablished the methodological basis ofmodern urban morphology in Poland in hiswork ‘Zagadnienia typologii morfologicznejmiast w Polsce’ (‘Issues in the morphological

typology of Polish towns’) (Dziewo½ski,1962), in which he systematized the termsused in this field of study and presentedscientific postulates for the new generation ofurban morphologists. Dziewo½ski claimedthat up to that time two main tendencies couldbe distinguished in research. The first, trad-itional and more formal, focused onphysiognomic urban features visible to thehuman eye. The second, more recent ten-dency, was morphological in a stricter sense.It focused mainly on the historical origin offorms. Dziewo½ski clearly supported thelatter. Moreover, he also recognized the needto combine morphological and functionalapproaches both in empirical studies and in theclassification of cities. Previously classifi-cations and typologies, both morphologicaland functional, had developed independentlyof one another.

Dziewo½ski had earlier used a functionalapproach to morphological studies in his paperentitled ‘Zagadnienie rozwoju miastawczesnoÑredniowiecznego w Polsce’(‘Development of an early-medieval town inPoland’) (Dziewo½ski, 1957). He believedthat early-medieval settlement in Polandreflected different functional types ofsettlements, which resulted from the increasingterritorial and social division of labour.

A fully functional settlement pattern, whichpaved the way for future urban settlements,was represented by the so-called zespólgrodowy (round-fort complex). This complexwas divided into a main settlement – a gród(round fort) – which was a local or regionaladministrative centre and at the same time astrategic defensive point, and settlementslocated in the peripheral zone of the fort,providing various services to its inhabitants.The latter were called podgrodzies(suburbiums) and were occupied mainly byartisans. However, in larger round-fortcomplexes, there were also military andreligious functions, which were usuallysurrounded by their own rampart systems.

Further social and economic development,resulting in the rise of a money economy andfree trade, led to the creation of specializedmarket settlements. Such settlements were

The study of urban form in Poland 113

located close to podgrodzie as a third elementof the multifunctional zespól grodowy or as anindependent settlement serving the sur-rounding rural areas. According to Dzie-wo½ski, there is a strong probability that thefreedoms associated with a market place pavedthe way for territorial privileges, which werethe foundation for town charters. Hence thereis a tendency to refer to round-fort complexesand specialized market settlements as proto-towns or early-medieval towns.

From the morphological point of view,Dziewo½ski’s statement that the podgrodzies(except the market settlements) were character-ized by a non-plot layout was very important.The lack of a coherent spatial pattern of plotsin a Polish early-medieval town was in strikingcontrast to a medieval chartered town whosespatial pattern was based on a regular patternof burgages.

Another eminent scholar who played a majorrole in the development of Polish urbanmorphology, especially in empirical studies,was a geographer from the University ofWroc»aw – Stefan Golachowski. In the 1950sand 1960s he published a series ofmonographic works on Silesian towns –Opole, Gliwice, Bytom, Brzeg, Jelenia Góra,Rac ibórz , G »ogów and Wroc »aw(Golachowski, 1957, 1969). In addition toconsideration of topographical location, shape,plan, and land use, these studies examined thedivision of urban areas according to owner-ship, a previously unexamined aspect.

Golachowski’s works on ownership unitsexamined the origin of urban spatial patterns,exploring, for example, hypotheses concerningregularities in the planning of plot patterns inmedieval Silesian towns and undertakingdetailed measurements of the dimensions ofplots. His deliberations on the origin ofmedieval Wroc»aw’s plan (Golachowski,1956) are a striking example. Golachowskican be credited with initiating in-depth studiesof morphological units in Polish towns. In the1960s he was much influenced by the ideasand methods of M. R. G. Conzen (1960),especially his concept of a burgage cycle.

Conzen’s methods became more popular inPoland in the early 1960s, after the

presentation of his paper on ‘The plan analysisof an English city centre’ at the IGUSymposium in Urban Geography in Lund,Sweden in 1960 (Conzen, 1962). His methodswere quickly adopted, mainly in studies of thecentres of Wroc»aw and ºódï.

The celebrations of the thousandthanniversary of the Polish state (966-1966),which began in 1963, stimulated the develop-ment of historico-geographical urban studies.Comprehensive studies of the beginning of thePolish state were conducted. For political andpatriotic reasons, the studies were moreadvanced in the so-called Regained Territories,namely Silesia and Pomerania, whichbelonged to Poland in the early-medievalperiod, then to Germany, and were eventuallyrecovered by Poland, after some 200 years, inthe new post-war, geopolitical framework.The studies were based on documenting thePolish roots of these lands, including theorigins of urban settlements.

These studies brought significant achieve-ments, especially in Wroc»aw. Their mosteminent representatives, in addition toGolachowski, include J. Pude»ko. The studiesfocused on the origins of pre-charteredsettlement forms and the planning of medievalSilesian chartered towns. Conzenian town-plan analysis was widely used, as Silesiantowns had interesting, early-medieval andhigh-medieval spatial patterns and containednumerous architectural monuments. More-over, in contrast to towns in other parts ofPoland, many archival town plans from theseventeenth, eighteenth and nineteenthcenturies were well preserved, along withiconographic materials from earlier centuries.This facilitated the study of the origins andplanning of towns.

Pude»ko should be credited with the greatestachievements in this field. He focused onconceptions of medieval chartered townplanning, shapes and sizes of Silesian marketsquares and measurement modules used todelimit urban plots and street blocks (Pude»ko,1959, 1960, 1962, 1964, 1965, 1967, pp. 77-96).

Although the idea of planned, regularmedieval chartered towns originated in

114 The study of urban form in Poland

Western Europe, paradoxically most of suchmodel patterns can be found in Poland andneighbouring countries. This reflected the factthat in the West many cities had come intoexistence earlier, so there the opportunities toimplement the new models were more limited.In Poland, however, the distribution of oldertowns was sparse, so it could be supplementedwith new chartered ‘Gothic’ towns, founded incruda radice (from the very beginning),according strictly to the model concepts of a‘Gothic’ town, albeit modified according totopographical conditions. Existing towns alsopresented opportunities for incorporating newfeatures, including more regular layouts, asthey suffered major damage during the Tatarraids in the early-thirteenth century. Despitethis, the pre-chartered elements usuallyremained visible in these plans and gave rise to

distortions in the newly-implemented ‘Gothic’town model.

Through empirical studies, Pude»ko workedout the original dimensions of urban plots andthe most frequently used modules in creatingplot series. He scaled these modules andcreated a grid of squares which, when overlaidon the medieval town plan, enabled thereconstruction of a model of the dimensions ofurban plots and street blocks (Figures 1-3). Ina similar way he reconstructed the size andproportions of the market squares of Silesiantowns and recognized a typology. This was avery significant contribution to the method andtheory of the study of medieval charteredtowns.

A significant body of work has beenconcerned with roz»ogi miejskie (urban tracts),that is urban, agricultural areas of medievalorigin. In contrast to West European towns,medieval towns in Poland were to a largedegree dependent on agriculture and had largeareas of so-called urban tracts; namely fields,gardens, meadows, pastures and forests. Thisarea was usually larger than that of the built-uparea. The field pattern of these urban tractswas quite complex. Each townsman ownedland in at least three main field complexes (thefirst field was normally used for spring crops,the second for winter crops, and the third wasleft fallow and used for pasture). As a result ofmajor urban development in the nineteenth andtwentieth centuries, urban tracts becamelargely built over. As a consequence,medieval agricultural boundaries have beenincorporated in the layout of streets and plots,including in the largest Polish towns. Thestudy of these patterns and the recognition ofinitial measurement modules was undertakenmostly by geographers from Wroc»aw. Thistopic was introduced in the work of S.Golachowski and H. Szulc (1963). Thesestudies were expanded by J. Tkocz (1966a,1966b), both in the form of detailed studies ofthe origin of the field patterns of urban tractsand in regional comparisons.

The research, initiated by the masters of theWroc»aw morphological school, has beensuccessfully continued by B. Miszewska.Initially, she analyzed urban network develop-

Figure 1. Boles»awiec. A. Plan of thechartered town against the background of a

theoretical modular square grid. B. Theoretical schema of a town layout based onPude»ko (1967, p. 28). The shaded areas are

open spaces.

The study of urban form in Poland 115

Figure 3. Attempts to reconstruct the layout module of the city of Susz (Golachowski andPude»ko, 1963, p. 296).

Figure 2. Comparison of compositional schemas of selected charteredtowns, based on Pude»ko (1960, p. 42). A. Kty, B. òmigród, C. I»awa,D. Kamienna Góra, E. Namys»ów, F. Radom. The shaded areas areopen spaces (market places). G. Standard metrical module of open

spaces.

116 The study of urban form in Poland

ment in the Opole province using the graphmodel (Miszewska, 1971a). Later she studiedthe morphological structure of Opole andWroc»aw (Miszewska, 1971b, 1979). Mostrecently she has been applying Conzen’sburgage-cycle concept.

Another centre in Poland known for itscomprehensive studies of urban morphology is

ºódï. Studies were initiated by M. Koter(1969). He described the formation of thespatial pattern of nineteenth-century ºódï, themain centre of the textile industry in Poland, inrelation to local physical conditions andmedieval settlement forms, both urban andrural. His later works concerned more detailedmorphogenetic studies, which aimed at

Figure 4. Relicts of medieval settlement on a map of modern ºódï(based on Koter, 1976, p. 686). 1– forests and parks; 2 – medieval ruralºódï; 3 – medieval villages, reconstructed in the 1825-1840 period, with

traces of previous layouts; 4 – medieval villages, reconstructed in the1825-1840 period, lacking traces of previous layouts; 5 – medieval

privately-owned villages, reconstructed in the 1870s and 1880s, withtraces of previous layouts; 6 – relicts of medieval road system; 7 –ancient mill dykes and causeways, later used for road and street

construction; 8 – sacred structures; 9 – relicts of ancient manor housesand granges; 10 – traces of ancient manor houses and granges; 11 –

easily discerned relicts of village settlement; 12 – traces of ancient villagesettlements; 13 – ancient boundaries.

The study of urban form in Poland 117

showing the influence of medieval settlementforms on the planning of nineteenth- andtwentieth-century urban areas and how theseforms are still visible in present-day urbanareas. His work on the role of rural morph-ological elements in the process of shapingºódï’s spatial pattern (Koter, 1994a) is one ofmany examples. His research was synthesizedin his study of the morphogenetic structure ofºódï (Koter, 1979). It contains acontemporary map of the city, in which heidentified features surviving from differentperiods (Figure 4). These included fieldcomplexes, medieval villages, eighteenth-century irregular ‘Dutch’ colonies, regularPrussian colonies, remote settlements ofmillers, innkeepers and foresters, glass works,and handicraft colonies of weavers andspinners. He also identified urban zones fromdifferent stages of industrial city developmentin the early-nineteenth century, as well asvarious residential, industrial and commercialdistricts that emerged in the late-nineteenthcentury and twentieth century. This study wasgreatly influenced by plan analyses of Alnwickand Newcastle by Conzen (1960, 1962).

One of Conzen’s methods was widelyapplied in the study of the morphologicalevolution of the city centre of ºódï, between1825 and 1973 (Koter, 1990). Koter showedthat the Conzenian burgage cycle, previouslyrecognized only in medieval towns, was aparticular case of a more general cycleoccurring even in urban areas of recent origin.

In addition to empirical studies, Koter madea number of contributions of a more theoreticalnature. One of them (Koter, 1974) concernedterminological issues and included thespecification of such terms as urbanphysiognomy, morphology and morpho-genesis, which were often used ambiguously inPolish historico-geographical writing.Another work by Koter (1994b) addressedmajor theoretical issues in urban morphology.He also described the development of thescientific discipline of urban morphology. Inanalogy to historical geology, he introducedsuch terms as settlement stratigraphy,settlement periods and ‘leading monuments’(historical buildings of different architectural

styles, which represent relevant historicalperiods, much as ‘leading fossils’ do ingeology). In analogy to geomorphology,Koter suggested the term ‘urbomorphology’,which is gaining popularity in Poland.

M. Kulesza is another very active urbanhistorical geographer based in ºódï. Ahistorian by training, he is particularlyinterested in the origin of the spatial patternsof early-medieval towns and their influence onthe planning of medieval chartered towns. Hisresearch has concerned, among other things,spatial patterns of market settlements in centralPoland (Kulesza, 1999) and their visibleremains in plans of different towns (Kulesza,1994), as well as historical urban patterns inthis area. However, Kulesza’s (2001) disser-tation on the morphogenesis of towns incentral Poland during the pre-partition period(before the eighteenth century) is his mostsignificant contribution. In this study, heshowed that out of about 100 historical townsfounded in this area, only two were founded incruda radice and had the regular layout of a‘Gothic’ town. The others derived frommultifunctional, early-medieval round-fortcomplexes, former market settlements orformer villages, whose remains wereincorporated in the plans of chartered towns.From the point of view of Polish historicalgeography this is a very important finding, asthe concept of a chartered town came toPoland from the West, through Germany. Thebasing of charters on German law had inspiredsome German scientists, especially during theNazi period, to think that the foundation ofPolish towns was a result of a Germansettlement movement. Though this occurred inthe case of the first chartered towns, especiallyin Silesia which was pillaged by Tatar raids inthe early-thirteenth century, this should not beconsidered to be the norm. Kulesza’s studiesestablished this fact beyond any doubt. Themajority of towns in Silesia had pre-charterorigins, as had been indicated by Golachowskiand Pude»ko (1963).

Among researchers who worked outsideºódï and Wroc»aw were S. Witkowski and J.Kubiak. The former mainly focused on thelegacy of fixed assets in towns, examining the

118 The study of urban form in Poland

case of towns in the Kielce province(Witkowski, 1962, 1967). Apart fromstudying the legacy of urban forms, not leastarchitectural works, Witkowski alsoconsidered a wide variety of other fixed assets– residential, production, service-related andothers. He proved that legacy is one of themain factors of the urban development processand that the creation of new values and theirhistorical succession is embodied in thedevelopment of towns. J. Kubiak (1983), onthe other hand, used Pude»ko’s modular grid ofsquares to reconstruct the bases of Toru½’smedieval planning and proved that this methodcould also be used for towns in other parts ofPoland, although the modules were differentfrom those used in Silesia.

Although economic geography was regardedas of prime importance in geography duringthe communist period, urban morphology stillmanaged to develop to a reasonable level andthe current interest of students (includingdoctoral students) in this field of study augurswell for its further development.

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Journal of Space Syntax

The new e-journal, Journal of Space Syntaxwelcomes high quality academic papers that reportpreviously unpublished findings from cutting edgeresearch into space, society and the design of thebuilt environment. The journal focuses on issuesrelevant to architecture, urbanism and the socialsciences and draws on a wide range of scientifictheories, analytical research methods andconfigurational approaches to the study of space,architectural and urban form and societies,including, but not restricted to, space syntax. Italso promotes new software applications that modelor simulate spatial or social processes, designprojects that provide exemplars of evidence-basedarchitectural and planning practice, and inspiringteaching and learning in higher education thataddresses the society-space relationship. The scopeof the journal is intentionally inclusive and multi-scalar, ranging in its subject matter from the spatialstructure of regions, landscapes and settlementpatterns, to cities and towns, the planning andorganization of building complexes, complexbuildings and housing (including the design ofindividual dwellings) as well as articles on theperception, cognition and experience of space andemergent processes in cities, buildings andsocieties.

The journal is published on-line twice a year, inMarch and September. It welcomes review articles

about topical matters relevant to architecture,planning, urban morphology and the socialsciences. It hosts a regular Forum for readers’comments, correspondence, points of view, notesand queries and matters for discussion and a BookReview and Events section that draws readers’attention to relevant publications and activities inthe field.

Volume 1, Number 1 (2010) includes thefollowing papers:D. Koch, ‘Architecture re-configured’L. Marcus, ‘Spatial capital’B. Hillier, ‘What do we need to add to a social

network to get a society?’A. Ståhle and L. Marcus, ‘Compact sprawl

experiments’L. Vaughan, C. E. Jones, S. Griffiths and M.

Haklay, ‘The spatial signature of suburban towncentres’

A. Legeby, ‘From housing segregation to inte-gration in public space’

A. Carpenter and J. Peponis, ‘Poverty and con-nectivity’

J. Steen and H. Markhede, ‘Spatial and social con-figurations in offices’

S. Bafna, C. Antúnez, M. S. Hyun, H. K. Lee, Y.Lu, ‘The visual functioning of buildings: outlineof a possible general theory’