Normatywny wymiar koncepcji jednostki prezentowany w opiniach odrębnych sędziego MTS Antônio Augusto Cançado Trindade Dr hab. Artur Kozłowski, prof. UWr.Katedra Prawa międzynarodowego i EuropejskiegoWydział Prawa, Administracji i EkonomiiUniwersytet Wrocławski

Augusto Antonio Cançado Trindade

- Emerytowany profesor prawa międzynarodowego (University of Brasilia),

- Prezes Międzyamerykańskiego Trybunału Praw Człowieka (1995-2008),

- Od 2008 r. - sędzia Międzynarodowego Trybunału Sprawiedliwości w Hadze

Zdania odrębne i indywidualne (MTS)

• Pulp Mills case (Argentina v. Uruguay), 2010• Advisory Opinion of the International Court of Justice (ICJ) on Accordance with International Law of the Unilateral Declaration of Independence in Respect of Kosovo, 2008• Ahmadou Sadio Diallo case (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the Congo), 2012• Application of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Georgia v. Russian Federation), 2011• Advisory Opinion on Judgment No. 2867 of the Administrative Tribunal of the International Labour Organization upon a Complaint Filed against the International Fund for Agricultural Development, 2010

- Jurisdictional Immunities of the State (Germany v. Italy : Greece intervening), 2012

- Questions relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite (Belgium v. Senegal), 2012

- Frontier Dispute (Burkina Faso v. Niger), 2013- Temple of Preah Vihear (Cambodia v. Thailand),

2013- Whaling in the Antarctic (Australia/New Zealand v.

Japan), 2014

THE CONTEMPORANEITY OF THE “DROIT DES GENS”:THE HUMANIST VISION OF THE INTERNATIONAL LEGAL ORDER „Since the times of those writings, the world of course has

entirely changed, but human aspirations have remained the same. The advent, over the twentieth century, of international organizations (as we came to know them nowadays), has much contributed, in a highly positive way, to put an end to abuses against human beings, and gross violations of human rights and international humanitarian law. The United Nations, in our times, has sought the prevalence of the dictates of the universal juridical conscience, particularly when aiming to secure dignified conditions of living to all peoples, in particular those subjected to oppression.” (K)

Rola prawników-internacjonalistów

„International legal scholars in those days had more time to devote themselves to the fulfilment of the needs of the spirit ; their

energies were not yet diverted to, or consumed by, the distractions of the ages of television and internet. Modernity

and post-modernity, with their characteristic pragmatism, seem to have obscured the goal of fulfilment of those needs, and to

have left most people today apparently looking far too busy all the time, doing nothing substantial, certainly not thinking.”

(GvR)

Rola prawników internacjonalistów

„For him, international lawyers have a sacred role to play in the world, and they must strive ever onward to

expand the right of access to justice for all, in all possible situations, against all obstacles.”

Podstawa koncepcji:

- istota prawa międzynarodowego („new 'jus gentium'”):

Ius necessarium v. ius voluntariumJuridical conscience of what is necessary (jus necessarium) stands above

the “free-will” of individual States (jus voluntarium). (A/NZvJ)„conscience stands above the will.” (GvR)

„The raison d’humanité prevails over the old raison d’Etat.” (GvR)

Recta ratio

Poglądy „ojców założycieli”„The droit des gens regulates an international community constituted of human beings socially organized in States and co-extensive with humankind (F. de Vitoria); thus conceived, it is solely law which regulates the relations among members of the universal societas gentium (A. Gentili). This latter (totus orbis) prevails over the individual will of each State (F. de Vitoria). There is thus a necessary law of nations, and the droit des gens reveals the unity and universality of humankind (F. Suárez). The raison d’Etat has limits, and the State is not an end in itself, but a means to secure the social order pursuant to the right reason, so as to perfect the societas gentium which comprises the whole of humankind (H. Grotius). The legislator is subject to the natural law of human reason (S. Pufendorf), and individuals, in their association in the State, ought to promote together the common good (C. Wolff)

Podstawy wyrokowania w ramach MTS

Artykuł 38. 1. Trybunał, którego zadaniem jest orzekać na podstawie prawa

międzynarodowego w sporach, które będą mu przekazane, będzie stosował:

a) konwencje międzynarodowe, bądź ogólne, bądź specjalne, ustalające reguły, wyraźnie uznane przez państwa spór wiodące;

b) zwyczaj międzynarodowy, jako dowód istnienia powszechnej praktyki, przyjętej jako prawo;

c) zasady ogólne prawa, uznane przez narody cywilizowane; d) z zastrzeżeniem postanowień artykułu 59, wyroki sądowe tudzież zdania

najznakomitszych znawców prawa publicznego różnych narodów, jako środek pomocniczy do stwierdzania przepisów prawnych.

2. Postanowienie niniejsze nie stanowi przeszkody, aby Trybunał mógł orzekać ex aequo et bono, o ile strony na to zgadzają się.

Istota prawa międzynarodowego – powszechna sprawiedliwość

„There is nothing extraordinary in this, if we keep in mind that, in historical perspective, international law

itself precedes the inter-State dimension, and even the States themselves. What stands above all is the

imperative of universal justice. This is in line with jusnaturalist thinking. The contemporary understanding of the principle of universal jurisdiction discloses a new,

wider horizon.”

Recta ratio

„[…] necessary law of the societas gentium has — pursuant to natural law thinking — “prevailed over the will of individual States”, thus remaining “respectful of the human person, to the benefit of the common good. The precious legacy of natural law thinking, evoking the natural law of the right human reason (recta ratio), has never faded away, and this should be stressed time and time again.” (DRCvG)

Istota prawa międzynarodowego - założenia• the universalist international law (the new universal jus

gentium of our times)• „the emancipation of the individual from his own State is,

in my understanding, the greatest legacy of the consolidation of the international law of human rights” (BvS)

• „Not only individual rights, but also the corresponding State duties (of protection, investigation, prosecution, sanction and reparation) emanate directly from international law.”

Istota prawa międzynarodowego - założenia• the on-going process of humanization of international law, (pojęcie

państwa)• principles of humanity and respect for the inherent dignity of the human

person (przyrodzona godność człowieka)• human conscience, the universal juridical conscience, the ultimate material

source of all law. (źródło prawa)• „This goal — the realization of justice — can hardly be attained from a strict

State-centered voluntarist perspective, and a recurring search for State consent.” (GvR) (czynienie sprawiedliwości)

• the individual’s right of access to justice (dostęp do sprawiedliwości)• the right to reparation for the grave violations of the rights inherent to him

as a human being. (prawo do odszkodowania)• „it is for the people to determine the destiny of the territory and not the

territory the destiny of the people”, (Dillard, Western Sahara, ICJ)

Istota prawa międzynarodowego – dostęp do sprawiedliwości (access to justice)• The right of access to justice lato sensu comprises not only the

formal access to justice (the right to institute legal proceedings), by means of an effective remedy, but also the guarantees of the due process of law (with equality of arms, conforming the proces équitable), up to the judgment (as the prestation juridictionnelle), with its faithful execution, with the provision of the reparation due. The realization of justice is in itself a form of reparation, granting satisfaction to the victim. In this way those victimized by oppression have their right to the law (droit au Droit) duly vindicated. (K)

Istota prawa międzynarodowego (podmiotowość)• „Individuals are indeed subjects of international law (not

merely “actors”), and whenever legal doctrine departed from this, the consequences and results were catastrophic. Individuals are titulaires of rights and bearers of duties which emanate directly from international law (the jus gentium). Converging developments, in recent decades, of the international law of human rights, of international humanitarian law, and of the international law of refugees, followed by those of international criminal law, give unequivocal testimony of this.”

Istota prawa międzynarodowego – zgoda podmiotów (consent)• „The Court cannot remain hostage of State consent. It

cannot keep displaying an instinctive and continuing search for State consent, as it so ostensibly did in its decisions, e.g., in the East Timor case (Portugal v. Australia) (Judgment of 30 June 1995), and in the case of Armed Activi- ties on the Territory of the Congo (New Application : 2002) (Democratic Republic of Congo v. Rwanda) (Judgment of 3 February 2006), to the point of losing sight of the imperative of realization of justice.” (GvR)

Istota prawa międzynarodowe – zgoda podmiotów a sfera wartości •„The outcome of the present case before the ICJ,

concerning the Application of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, is the ineluctable consequence of inaptly and wrongfully giving pride of place to State consent, even above the fundamental values at stake, underlying the CERd Convention, which call for the realization of justice. „ (GvR)

Istota prawa międzynarodowego – zgoda podmiotów jako domniemanie

•„State consent is but a rule to be observed in the exercise of compulsory jurisdiction for the realization of justice. It is a means, not an end, it is a procedural requirement, not an element of treaty interpretation ; it surely does not belong to the domain of the prima principia.” (GvR)

Istota prawa międzynarodowego – zgoda podmiotów a zasada pacta sunt servanda) •„Hugo Grotius, for example, acknowledged that mere

consent could never be the ultimate source of legal obligations ; a contract or a treaty (at domestic or international law levels) had binding effects on the parties by virtue of the underlying general rule of law of pacta sunt servanda.” (GvR) ▫ L. Duguit’s notion of solidarity, H. Krabbe’s sense of

right, H. Kelsen’s (hypothetical) fundamental norm, A. Verdross’s idea of objective justice)

Istota prawa międzynarodowego – duch traktatu (living instruments)•The hermeneutics and proper application of that treaty

cannot be continuously subjected to a recurring search for State consent. This would unduly render the letter of the treaty dead, and human rights treaties are meant to be living instruments, let alone their spirit. (GvR)

•“living instrument” capable of keeping on responding to needs of the international community and new challenges that it faces nowadays in the present domain. (AvJ)

Podstawowe wartości (fundamental values) – spoiwo

„Furthermore, it transcends the inter-State dimension, as it purports to safeguard not the interests of individual States, but rather the fundamental values shared by the international community as a whole.” (BvS)

Fundamental (general) principles of law (prima principia) - znaczenie „It is not surprising to find that voluntarist-positivists, who have

always attempted to minimize the role of general principles of law, have always met the opposition of those who sustain the relevance of those principles, as ensuing from the idea of an objective justice, and guiding the interpretation and application of legal norms and rules. This is the position that I sustain. It is the principles of the inter- national legal system that can best ensure the cohesion and integrity of the international legal system as a whole. Those principles are inter-twined with the very foundations of international law, pointing the way to the universality of this latter, to the benefit of humankind. Those principles emanate from human conscience, the universal juridical conscience, the ultimate material “source” of all law.” (AvU)

Prima principia „The necessary attention to those

principles brings us closer to the domain of higher human values, shared by the international community as a whole. It is, ultimately, those principles that inform and conform the applicable norms. Without them, there is ultimately no legal system at all; hence their utmost importance, at both international and domestic levels.” (CvTh)

Prima principia„After all, it is the fundamental principles that

confer cohesion, coherence and legitimacy, and the ineluctable axiological dimension, to every legal system. In effect, general principles permeate the whole international legal order; they conform their substratum, being consubstantial to it. They give expression to the idea of an objective justice, above the will of individual States. They indicate, at last, the status conscientiae reached by the international community as a whole.” (CvTh)

Fundamental (general) principles of law (prima principia) - przykłady • „Fundamental principles are those of pacta sunt servanda, of

equality and non-discrimination (at substantive law level), of equality of arms (égalité des armes — at procedural law level). Fundamental principle is, furthermore, that of humanity (permeating the whole corpus juris of international human rights law, international humanitarian law, and international refugee law). Fundamental principle is, moreover, that of the dignity of the human person (laying a foundation of international human rights law). Fundamental principles of international law are, in addition, those laid down in Article 2 in the Charter of the United Nations.” (GvR)

Prima principia – wykluczenie zasady zgody• These are some of the true prima principia, which confer to

the international legal order its ineluctable axiological dimension. These are some of the true prima principia, which reveal the values which inspire the corpus juris of the international legal order, and which, ultimately, provide its foundations themselves. Prima principia conforms the substratum of the international legal order, conveying the idea of an objective justice (proper of natural law). In turn, State consent does not belong to the realm of the prima principia ; recourse to it is a concession of the jus gentium to States, is a rule to be observed (no one would deny it) so as to render judicial settlement of international disputes viable.

Ius cogens a wymóg czynienia sprawiedliwości (realization of justice) „The realization of justice is of key

importance to the victims, and belongs, in my understanding, to the domain of jus cogens. Without it, the right of access to justice lato sensu, there is no legal system at all.” (GvDRC)

Ius cogens - rola w systemie prawa międzynarodowego•„Identified with general principles of law

enshrining common and superior values shared by the international community as a whole, jus cogens ascribes an ethical content to the new jus gentium, the international law for humankind. In prohibiting torture in any circumstances whatsoever, jus cogens exists indeed to the benefit of human beings, and ultimately of humankind.” (BvS)

Ius cogens – zobowiązania rezultatu• „the obligations under a “core human

rights Convention” of the United Nations such as the Convention against Torture are not simple obligations of means or conduct : they are, in my understanding, obligations necessarily of result, as we are here in the domain of peremptory norms of international law, of jus cogens, generating obligations erga omnes partes under the Convention against Torture.”

Ius cogens a immunitet jurysdykcyjny

„Grave breaches of human rights and of international humanitarian law amount to breaches of jus cogens, entailing State responsibility and the right to reparation to the victims. This is in line with the idea of rectitude (in conformity with the recta ratio of natural law).” (K)

Immunitet jurysdykcyjny – tok rozumowania

• „[State immunity] is not to stand in the way of the realization of justice. The pursuit of justice is to be preserved as the ultimate goal ; securing justice to victims encompasses, inter alia, enabling them to seek and obtain redress for the crimes they suffered. Jus cogens stands above the prerogative or privilege of State immunity, with all the consequences that ensue therefrom, thus avoiding denial of justice and impunity. (K)

Immunitet jurysdykcyjny państwa – tok rozumowania•When a State pursues a criminal policy of

murdering segments of its own population, and of the population of other States, it cannot, later on, place itself behind the shield of sovereign immunities, as these latter were never conceived for that purpose.

• International crimes perpetrated by States are not acts jure gestionis, nor acts jure imperii ; they are crimes, delicta imperii, for which there is no immunity. (K)

Immunitet jurysdykcyjny państwa (tok rozumowania)•In case of grave violations of human

rights and of international humanitarian law, the direct access of the individuals concerned to the international jurisdiction is thus fully justified, to vindicate those rights, even against their own State. (K)

Immunitet jurysdykcyjny – tok rozumowania „The State’s duty to provide reparation to

individual victims of grave violations of human rights and of international humanitarian law is a duty under customary international law and pursuant to a fundamental general principle of law.” (K)

Immunitet jurysdykcyjny – tok rozumowania „In effect, to admit the removal of State

immunity in the realm of trade relations, or in respect of local personal tort (e.g., in traffic accidents), and at the same time to insist on shielding States with immunity, in cases of international crimes — marked by grave violations of human rights and of international humanitarian law — in pursuance of State (criminal) policies, amounts to a juridical absurdity.” (K)

Immunitet jurysdykcyjny - wniosek „My firm position is that there is no State

immunity for international crimes, for grave violations of human rights and of international humanitarian law.” (K)

Integralność terytorialna a prawo narodów do samostanowienia „No State can invoke territorial integrity in order to commit

atrocities (such as the practices of torture, and ethnic cleansing, and massive forced displacement of the population), nor perpetrate them on the assumption of State sovereignty, nor commit atrocities and then rely on a claim of territorial integrity notwithstanding the sentiments and ineluctable resentments of the “people” or “population” victimized.”

The basic lesson is clear: no State can use territory to destroy the population. Such atrocities amount to an absurd reversal of the ends of the State, which was created and exists for human beings, and not vice-versa. (K)

Integralność terytorialna a prawo narodów do samostanowienia

„The Government of a State which incurs grave and systematic violations of human rights ceases to represent the people or population victimized.” (K)

Wykładnia prawa• The position and the thesis I sustain in the present dissenting

opinion is that, when the ICJ is called upon to settle an inter-State dispute on the basis of a human rights treaty, it is bound to secure a proper interpretation and application of that treaty, bearing in mind its special nature and its substance, in its entirety, and the fact that it is intended to protect rights of the human person at intra-State level. The proper interpretation of human rights treaties (in the light of the canons of treaty interpretation of Articles 31-33 of the two Vienna Conventions on the Law of Treaties, of 1969 and 1986) covers, in my understanding, their substantive as well as procedural provisions, (GvR)

Krytyka koncepcji- Sollen v. Sein

- Koncepcja a praktyka państw