UNIWERSYTET GDAŃSKI

WYDZIAŁ FILOLOGICZNY

INSTYTUT ANGLISTYKI

Krzysztof Świerczyński

Kierunek studiów: Filologia

Specjalność: Filologia angielska

Numer albumu: 172186

Praktyczne zastosowanie modelu tłumaczeniowego

Newmarka na przykładzie wspomaganego

Tłumaczenia fragmentów z książki

“Dlaczego ludzie nienawidzą Ameryki”.

Praca licencjacka

napisana w Instytucie Anglistyki UG

pod kierunkiem

dr Justyny Giczeli-Pastwy

Gdańsk 2010

THE UNIVERSITY OF GDAŃSK

FACULTY OF LANGUAGES

INSTITUTE OF ENGLISH

Krzysztof Świerczyński

Degree: Filologia

Specialisation: Filologia angielska

Matricula number: 172186

Practical application of Newmark's translation model

on the example of a guided translation of fragments

from the book 'Why do people hate America'.

BA Thesis

Written in the institute of English,

University of Gdańsk

under the guidance of

dr Justyna Giczela-Pastwa

Gdańsk 2010

Table of contents

ABSTRACT * 2

1 . Introduction (na końcu)

2. Literature Review (bardziej obiektywne, szczegóły)

2.1. Uzależnione od tendencji/nazwisk

2. 2. Kwieciński ! Vernuti

3. Opis książki, pokazanie, że nie mieści się w granicach modelu.

4. Model Newmarka jako baza OK

5. Metod (?) focused-communicative.

6. Typy metod I pasujące prodedury.

7. Tłumaczenie pierwotne

8. Porównanie z oryginałem (na końcu)

9. Badania componential

10. Wyniki

11. Dyskusja

Introduction

The translation theory is generally seen as a means of describing a

translation, not as a tool to be consciously applied during the process. The aim

of the present paper is to verify whether the translation methods, and

procedures proposed by Newmark can be used with a benefit to the final

product. The fragment of a book Why do people hate America by Ziauddin

Sardar and Merryl Wyn Davies will be translated from English to Polish using

the aforementioned model. The translation of this book already exists on the

Polish market and both translations will be briefly compared in terms of

procedures used.

Literature review.

1: Terms describing the process: Methods, procedures.

In study of the translation process, one needs means to classify the

actions of a translator. The names of the notions used for this purpose and

what they stand for have widely been argued about by translation scholars.

Chesterman () Even devoted a whole part of his article to the terminological

problem which affects strategies.

The basis of distinction is the unit on which the translatory action is

performed. Generally, there are levels of text, and level of a particular

collocation, word, or even morpheme that poses a problem to the translator.

There are also sets of smaller actions which aim at dealing with a particular

type of problem.

1.1 Methods

The most general unit is the text, and the notion used to describe the

general approach to the text is method. Popular names for Newmark (1991)

gives two methods fit to be used: semantlic and communicative translation.

The other pair is foreignisation and domestication, introduced in 18th

century by Schleiermacher, and advocated zealously by Venuti (2008), who

chose to classify translations as foreignizing or domesticating, and favour the

former. To foreignise is to maintain foreign elements, even at the cost of lower

intelligibility of the TT and to domesticate is to put stress on the TL culture

and values, and accommodate the ST to them, with loss of the original cultural

elements. However, some translation scholars regard Venuti’s views as a bit

extreme, and propose their own classifications based on his ideas. Kwieciński

(2004), instead of giving two extremes, expands the theory and introduces the

scale of exoticism and foreignisation. The first emergence of notions which

might resemble what we call methods nowadays dates with publishing of the

work ‘Stylistique comparée du français et de l’anglais‘ by Vinay and Dalbernet

(1977). Authors listed methods covert and overt translations and is created by

Vinay and Dalbernet. Method is a general “approach” to translation which

affects the whole text (Newmark 1988:81), and procedure is a way of dealing

with one particular problem.

Newmark proposed his selection of translation methods. He gives two

predominant methods: semantic and communicative. The first method is

oriented towards the author/source text and the other towards the reader/

target language. Communicative method is more likely to change register,

word order and even undertranslate to convey the message, intention of the

author of the text. Semantic translation has more to do with the though-

processes, not results. It would sooner overtranslate, in fear of losing nuances

of meaning. First aims to be accessible to the reader, while the other does not.

What is interesting, is Newmark's claim that in both methods

literal,translation is to be the base (Newmark, 1988:70). His definition of

literal translation, though, requires further explanation. He writes that it

means 'one-to-one' translation on levels of word, collocation, or even sentence.

He is aware that when a translator encounters a problem, literal translation is

rarely the correct option.

1.2 Procedures

The discussions started with the research of Vinay and Darbelnet (1977),

who introduced a term “procedure” which represents actions taken during

translation. Procedures could be active on three levels (but not in a sense of

the size of a unit): lexis, distribution and message. Additionally, they are

divided into direct (literal) or oblique (these two terms were later proposed as

names for translation methods, which we will discuss later). Seven basic

procedures were proposed, and a number of others, which are mostly

gathered into opposing pairs, such as concentration and dissolution,

explicitation and implicitation. Additionally, every procedure can be either of

‘servitude’ (obligatory) or of ‘option’, which is an interesting view, although

not seen as useful nowadays. Catford also decided to use one term for all the

translatory actions and introduced ‘shifts’ (1965) . They occur on linguistic

levels such as word class, structure etc. Nida (1964) in turn used the notion

'procedure' to describe text analysis and organization of the translator's work

and introduced 'techniques of adjustment' to deal with cultural differences

and proposed using only four: addition, subtraction and alteration, plus notes.

Vinay and Dalbernet also decided to introduce two types of ‘strategies’,

direct and oblique. They are meant to be complementary: one should translate

directly (literally), that is, use direct procedures, and when it is impossible or

would produce an awkward effect, resort to the oblique procedures. Direct

procedures are: borrowing, calque and literal translation, oblique strategy

comprises modulation, equivalence and adaptation.

Spme theorists include the notion of translation method. Newmark

describes method as a general “approach” to translation which affects the

whole text (Newmark 1988:81).

The task of building a model of conscious translation requires that the

tools be differentiated according to the level on which they operate. We shall

make use of the Newmark’s division into methods and procedures, as the level

of text each of them covers facilitates establishing their hierarchy: methods

concern the whole text and may promote the application of certain procedures

on the smaller level..

Different translation methods propagate the use of different translation

procedures to deal with problems in text. The unit for procedure, or

technique, which term is popular thanks to the works of Molina and Hurtado

Albir (2002). However, they use the term procedure as an umbrella term for

all kinds of translatory actions

- Componential analysis: for this procedure, one needs to see the

fragment to be translated as containing “sense components”. This procedure

consists of comparing SL term and a possible term in TL by their disassembly

into single sense components. Newmark supports the use of this method in

cases when accuracy, not economy of translation is important. He lists seven

cases when it can be used: lexical words that has no TL equivalent, cultural

words, synonyms used for emphasis, cultural sets or series (e.g distinguishing

between meanings of kinship terms, forms of bread, types of windows, clothes

etc.), conceptual terms that represent slightly different concepts in cultures,

neologisms and “words as myths” that, again have different realisation in

various cultures.

Modulation: it occurs when the translator reproduces the message of

the original text in the TL text in conformity with the current norms of the TL,

since the SL and the TL may appear dissimilar, mostly in terms of perspective

e.g: more widespread use of passive in English than in Polish.

Descriptive equivalent: Abandoning the specific term for a descriptive

one. Example: Polish ”uszka” translated as “dumplings with mushroom filling”

Functional equivalent: replacement of the term with term of similar

function.

Cultural equivalent: using a more fitting term from the Target Culture

to substitute a Target Culture term vague to the TL audience.

Synonymy: In Newmark's view synonym represents an approximate

equivalent, rather than a traditional synonym. Recommends it for terms

of lesser importance. The TT expression is shorter, but not necessarily

accurate.

Paraphrase: A way of transferring the meaning using completely

different words. Newmark first stressed that it should be used at the last

resort, but in his last book (1991) agrees that it can indeed be a valuable

tool in translation of 'anonymous' texts (see subchapter on text function

assessment)

Transference: it is introduction of the 'loan words', including the ones

produced by transcription of a foreign term into language. It may later be

incorporated into the TL or not. Examples: factoring, faktoring; image, image

(pron. imidż).

Naturalisation: means transfering the term and adapting it to TL

pronounciation and morphology. Examples: Business, biznesowy.

- Through-translation: it is a literal translation of common collocations,

names of organizations and components of compounds. It can also be called:

calque or loan translation.

- Recognized translation: it occurs when the translator "normally uses the

official or the generally accepted translation of any institutional term."

- Compensation: it occurs “when loss of meaning in one part of a sentence

is compensated in another part.”

Translation label: “an approximate equivalent, sometimes proposed as a

collocation in inverted commas, which may later be accepted” as a good term.

Transposition: It is the replacement of one grammatical unit by the

other

Couplets: it occurs when the translator combines two different

procedures, often literal translation or translation label plus transference.

Notes, additions, glosses: Newmark embarked on a task to categorise

additional information in the translation. He distinguishes: information within

the text (various kinds of it), notes at the bottom page, notes at the end of the

chapter and notes or glossary at end of the book. Newmark proposes the

information within the text as the best option.

When encountering problems with translation, one theoretically could

pick and choose from the procedures available, though the practical

application of procedures and their relationship with methods will be

evaluated in the later research.

2. Componential analysis

Componential analysis is not new, it was used in linguistics as early a in

the 50’, while its application in translation is rather scarce.

3. Text function assessment theories

In order to create a groundwork for conscious translation and comparison

of translations, one needs to pinpoint the type of a text. Needless to say, a

translation of a poem would require different approach than translation of film

subtitles of an academic text. There are two major tendencies in the field of

text function typologies: one aims at describing text functions on different

levels ?such as mode, tenor and context, while the other depicts functions as

coexistent, and mostly overlapping. Bühler created a distinction into three text

functions in 1933, which had important influence on function theories of

Jakobson and Newmark. In Approaches to translation, Newmark advocates

the use of Bühler's typology of texts and their functions and expands it further.

According to him there are three functions of language: Expressive,

informative and vocative.

Fig 1. Functional characteristics of text types (from Newmark, 1981:15)

Expressive Informative Vocative

Typical examples Literature and

authoritative

texts

Scientific and

technical reports

and textbooks

Polemical

writing, publicity,

notices, laws and

regulations,

propaganda,

popular literature

'Ideal'style Individual Neutral, Persuasive or

objective imperative

Focus Writer (1st

person)

Situation (3rd

person)

Reader (2nd

person)

Type of language Figurative Factual Compelling

Keywords

(retain)

Leitmotivs Theme words Token words

Text emphasis Source language

(SL)

Target language

(TL)

Target language

Method Literal

translation

Equivalent –

effect translation

Equivalent –

effect translation

Unit of

translation

Maximum

Minimum

Small

Collocation

Word

Medium

Sentence

Collocation

Large

Text

Paragraph

Loss of meaning Considerable Small Dependent on

cultural

differences

New Words and

meanings

Mandatory if in

SL text

Not permitted

unless reason

given

Yes, except in

formal texts

Unusual Reproduce Give sense Recreate

metaphors

Length in

relation to

original

Approximately

the same

Slightly longer No norm

The points contained in fig. 1 are numerous, and give much information about

the texts and how they should be dealt with. Expressive text type is meant to

underline the individual character of the text. Informative has to convey the

“extralinguistic” information of the text. Vocative text type aims at eliciting

desired response in reader. These can be, to give examples, a scene of eating

fried bugs, which is to cause disgust, has to be drastically modified for

Thailand audience, where fried locust is considered a kind of regional dish.

Newmark claims that there are virtually no ‘pure’ texts, each of them

usually have one prevailing function. All texts essentially have informative

function (Newmark, 1981). Texts with predominant expressive function are in

his books called ‘sacred’, while the communicative are named ‘anonymous’.

The model for assessment which function of the text is predominant shall take

into account various text types characteristics. Some elements from the table

in fig.1 give details that describe the text function and the others the course of

action that shall be taken during translation, what can make Newmark's

findings partly descriptive, and partly prescriptive. The elements of the table

that can be useful in text function assessment are: Typical examples, 'ideal'

style, focus, and type of language. The characteristics to be taken into

consideration during translation process are: Text emphasis, method, unit of

translation, loss of meaning, new words and meanings, unusual metaphors,

length in relation to original.

The approaches listed here may suffice for the purpose of the paper,

which is practical evaluation of translation techniques (general term used for

translation methods and procedures) proposed by Newmark.

Chapter I

3.1

Why do people hate America is a work about politics, culture and society. As

such, it contains a number of terms related closely to the American culture

and expressions that are closely connected with the context of the subject.

This chapter will present the elements of the model and argumentate their

use. The base theories are rooted in Newmark's views.

1.2 Appropriating text function typology to the model.

First step in creating the framework for guided translation is establishing

which text function is predominant in the text, according to the classification

of text function proposed by Newmark described in the literature review of

the present paper. Relating the text to the qualities of the text enumerated in

fig 1 over the thicker line in the table will present us with a number of

indications pertaining to the function of the text.

1. Typical examples (choosing which example the ST resembles the most) –

The ST is the closest to polemical writing, but at times it contains just

dry data, making it similar to historical or social research.

2. 'Ideal' style – What the authors strive to achieve is to change the

reader's way of thinking, but this is not achieved solely by persuasion,

but in the biggest part by presenting relevant data and providing logical

arguments and conclusions. Again text function in this aspect is

somewhere between informative and vocative.

3. Focus – The amount of pressure put on the reader is minimal and

personal style of the author is very slightly marked (only by occasional

remainder that the authors are British). The text is focused almost

entirely on the situation (content) and on facilitating the reception of

information.

4. Type of language – The style is not essentially marked and this excludes

the use of overtly figurative language. The language is very slightly

persuasive, sometimes it is clearly visible that the authors try to shock

the reader. The language is closest to fulfil the informative function.

From this evaluation we may deduce that informative function is predominant

in the text, with vocative function coming a close second. The expressive

elements, although present, are not the main focus of the text.

Newmark's observations contained in fig. 1 under the thicker line suggest,

that in this case translation emphasis shall be put on TL. The freedom to

reorganise the text should be watched closely, as the smallest unit of

translation is collocation, suggesting that the meaning loss may occur even on

this level. However, cultural differences present in the text may make it hard

to avoid meaning loss.

3.3 Methods and their procedures

The next step is to choose the translation method according to which we

are to conduct the process. Although in the table in fig. 1 methods have their

place, the term 'equivalent effect translation' is rather vague. In his

publications, Newmark steadily claims that at all times literal translation (in

the sense described in the literature review) shall be the general method, but

distinguishes between communicative and semantic translation (semantic is to

be used with expressive texts and communicative – with vocative and

informative). As with most of binary divisions in translation studies, e.g.

Venuti's division into foreignisation and domestication, it is hard, and often

pointless to follow one of the methods entirely throughout translation career.

What is needed, is rather a redefinition of these terms as the extremes

between which one manoeuvres – closer to one extreme or the other.

Kwieciński (2004) attempted to introduce this kind of gradation based on

Venuti's approach concerning the two extremes – domestication and

foreignization, but it was done so for the purpose of descriptive studies. Here

we will attempt to introduce at least one intermediate term that would make

translation methods more applicable.

Let us look closely what features are contained in the definition of

communicative translation (Newmark, 1981):

focus on the reader,

difficulties and obscurities minimalised,

transfer of foreign elements to the target language and culture,

when in conflict, force over content,

clear, simple, more direct, more conventional

would sooner undertranslate

Semantic:

remains in the original culture,

difficulties can be present, but connotations can be explained,

complex, more awkward,

more detailed and concentrated,

would sooner overtranslate

Here we can agree that vocative function is best fulfilled by

communicative method, and expressive by the semantic one (Newmark claims

so relating to the text function typology) Although Newmark thinks that in the

case of informative text, communicative method is a wise choice, one can't

help but notice, that an informative text could not be translated in exactly the

same way. On the one hand the communicative act has to be successful, and

on the other no relevant information should be omitted. Translator has to

decide which extralinguistic information cannot be lost to fulfil the purpose of

the translated text. I propose the term 'focused communicative' to describe a

communicative translation, where there are some 'sacred' pieces of

information which cannot be tampered with in order to achieve the equivalent

effect. In other words, the vocative element is subservient .to the general goal

of the text. What are the 'sacred' items of information? It should be left to

translator's competence, and his or her feeling of the intention of an author

and the goal behind the text. Creating a system for recognition of main

subjects in text types would be too extensive a task to involve in, certainly too

complicated to deal with it in present study.

Lists of procedures present in Newmark's books were often organised by

the principle of closeness to the ST. It is doubtful, however, whether all of

them can be used in a conscious way to improve the translation, instead of

being merely an obvious choice. Naming a, for example, established

equivalent in a text may be practical in descriptive studies, but in prescriptive

translation studies, which present model aspires to be a representant of, it is

not of much use. There are a good few pages devoted to shifts in Newmark’s

books, mostly concerning shifts between English and French, but more

extensive study of shifts between English and Polish would require delving

into another field of linguistics. Comparative stylistics may certainly be a

invaluable tool for a translator, but for the present moment it should not divert

our attention from the main model and other procedures. It would require

much reading into the nature of the stylistic differences between Polish and

English to be able to describe and use particular shifts consciously. Let us

ignore the shifts as a deliberately applied procedure for now. Modulation also

used rather intuitively and we often do not have much choice about whether

or not to use them.

What the model we create needs now is establishing the correspondence

between methods and procedures. Here the procedures shall be listed, with

recommendation about the method they would be most effective in, with brief

argumentation. The procedures named as 'intuitive' will not be taken into

account here, as they typically do not depend on text function. The letters at

the end of each point will stand for the methods that propagate the use of

each procedure S - semantic, F – Focused communicative, C – Communicative.

Small letter means that the procedure use is limited only to certain cases.

Componential analysis: Newmark's most favoured procedure is

componential analysis. Seeing from the perspective of methods, it can be

applied to either of them. However, as it was mentioned before, the nature of

informative function in the text requires that, using the vocabulary of

componential analysis, some semantic components (chefly extra-linguistic

ones) be more explicit than the others (in many cases semantic components

may be 'active' only in certain context: e.g in “The Godfather” trilogy the

presence of oranges foretold great trouble, while in a book or a report from a

party, the sentence “She brought in the oranges” might not contain the

semantic component of this sort), and some have to be omitted, otherwise the

translation would be unreadable because too many nuances are included. The

task of deciding which components are relevant in the text is one of the most

difficult in translator's work. In the model proposed here, this shall be the

main procedure for problematic terms and small translation units that breed

difficulties.

Descriptive equivalent: This procedure is used when there is no

immediate equivalent in the target culture. It can hardly be seamlessly fitted

in translation of any type, except for the less-relevant elements in

Communicative and Focused Communicative methods. (f, c)

Functional equivalent: The procedure is especially useful in

communicative translation, and – if the meaning loss is not considerable –

other types of translation. However, it often causes considerable loss of

meaning. (s, f, C)

Cultural equivalent: This type of equivalence is quite close to the

functional one, but the range of its use is narrow. Cultural equivalents are

hardly ever accurate, but may be useful, for example in some vocative texts,

such as comic ones, where explaining the joke would certainly ruin it. (C)

Synonymy: The procedure is inaccurate, but makes an act of

communication easier and shorter. Only the communicative method is good to

risk using synonyms. It can be applied to the less-relevant components from

focused translation. ( f, C)

Paraphrase: Used on the level of sentence, is to be avoided because of

inaccuracy. Newmark argues that it is the last resort, but also mentions that it

can be used in “anonymous” texts which are poorly written. It may prove to be

useful in communicative and focused method on elements which are less

relevant in the text. (c, F)

Transference: Transference could be labelled as coining a term in a

new language, while retaining the source language culture flavour, and as any

coinage it should not be used too eagerly. It could be used in any method,

provided there is justification for it, awkwardness is minimal, and it does not

impair the communicative function of the text. It remains very close to the ST,

so it fits best into the semantic method. (S, f, c)

Naturalisation: This procedure, closely related to transference, can be

used more widely, because it brings the transferred term closer to the TL. (S,

F, C)

Through-translation: Newmark claims (Newmark, 1991) that this

procedure should be used only when the effect of through-translation is

already an recognised translation, but it could be noticed that it may also be a

tool for creating translation label. (see point on translation label)

- Compensation: As this procedure enables a translator to make up for

some imperfections of one text element, it disrupts the structure of the text.

The use of the procedure in the semantic translation is different than in the

other methods, e.g. the alliteration in a poem may be compensated by a series

of rhyming words. Focused and Communicative translation go well with this

method, as the most important task is to express the meaning and the force,

no matter by which means. (F, C)

Translation label: This procedure may come in handy in all translation

methods, but the motivation may be different in each case. The 'rough and

ready' term may be used in a semantic method to convey neologisms or

author's manner of expression. In communicative or focused translation it may

be used to express complex ideas in the most accessible manner, and kept in a

text if if facilitates the communicative process. (S, F, C)

Couplets: Each case of couplets need to be assessed individually, as

various combinations of procedures may have different impact on the text and

different aims.

Notes, additions, glosses: This is a curious procedure that at the same

time provides information contained in the text and maintains its structure, at

the expense of reader's convenience, because he has to stop reading to turn to

the note. Newmark states, that in an expressive texts such information should

normally be included outside the translation, while explanation of minor

cultural details should be brought to the level of the text (Newmark, 1991:91).

Focused communicative method can make heavy use of this procedure, while

in case of vocative texts sometimes descriptive equivalent may be a better

option, as it saves the readers' effort and neither hinders the flow nor the

force of the message. (s)

After literal translation, the main procedure to be used during guided

translation would be componential analysis. As we can observe, the most

permissive method is the communicative one, and the least one is the

semantic method.

Fig. 2. Translation procedures and their correspondence with translation methods.

Semantic

translation

Focused

communicative

translation

Communicative

translation

Modulation + + +

Descriptive

equivalent

- +/- +/-

Functional

equivalent

+/- +/- +

Cultural

equivalent

- - +

Synonymy - +/- +

Paraphrase - + +/-

Transference + +/- +/-

Naturalisation + + +

Through-

translation

+/- +/- +/-

Compensation +/- + +

Translation

label

+ + +

3. Presenting translation

The text as a whole is already roughly described in terms of function and

the suitable method has been chosen. Now the choice of texts fragments shall

be presented, where methods and procedures will be put to use. It should be

noted that Newmark claimed that text function may change in the text, and

basing on that, we may assume that when in doubt, the function assessment

can be performed for each fragment separately. The choices were made with

the allotment of procedures in mind – if informative function is vital,

procedures from this semantic field were of preference. Other important

terms are under- and overtranslation, semantic components and componential

analysis. The guided translation is compared with the official, published

translation of the book in terms of procedures used.

Part I: Translation of the chosen passages

1Just as America dumps cheap commodities on developing countries, thus forcing

locally produced commodities and goods to the wall, so television programmes are

dumped on the Third World. The system works like this. A single episode of a hit

television show such as Alias or Dark Angel may cost up to $5 milion to make. This

money is recouped by selling the show to 5a single network in the United States

and Canada. The European sales are pure profit. Once the American and European

markets are sewn up, the programmes are dumped on Third World television

stations according to long-established formula for payment. The higher a country's

per capita income, the higher it is on a ladder of 'development', the more it pays.

Thus, while a British channel will pay something in the region of ₤200-250,000 for

an episode of a high-10rating show like The Simpsons, Malaysia may acquire the

same show for less than US$70,000 and Bangladesh for only US$25,000. Thus a

programme with exceptionally high production values is sold for peanuts, making

it impossible for local programming, working on modest to miniscule budgets, to

compete.

GENERAL PROBLEMS

Intention: To present how American programs are dumped on the Third

World markets.

Type of text: Informative

Readership (recipients): Educated laymen.

'Setting': Conclusion of a book on social studies.

Language: Many colloquialisms, rather easy to understand.

Intention of translator: To convey the information in an accessible way.

Method: Focused communicative.

Preferred size of translation unit: collocation to sentence.

SOME PARTICULAR PROBLEMS

Syntax: Sentences are of medium lenght, occasionally longer.

Possible grammatical shifts:Thus a programme ... to compete. [13-16]

Metaphors: force commodities to the wall[2]

Repetitions: Dumping

W taki sam sposób, w jaki Ameryka stosuje dumping tanich towarów do krajów

rozwijających się, tym samym stawiając lokalnych producentów pod ścianą, tak

programy telewizyjne są dumpingowane do krajów Trzeciego Świata. System

działa tak. Wyprodukowanie jednego odcinka serialowego hitu, takiego jak

Agentka o stu twarzach czy Cień Anioła może kosztować nawet pięć milionów

dolarów. Te pieniądze zwracają się przy sprzedaży serialu do jednego operatora w

Stanach Zjednoczonych i Kanadzie. Sprzedaże do Europy to już czysty zysk. Po

zdominowaniu rynków europejskich i amerykańskiego, programy są sprzedawane

po dumpingowych cenach do stacji telewizyjnych Trzeciego Świata według formuły

płatności ustalonej już dawno temu. Im wyższy dochód brutto na osobę, czyli im

tym wyżej jest ten kraj na drabinie „rozwoju”, tym więcej płaci. W ten sposób,

podczas gdy brytyjski kanał telewizyjny zapłaci około 200-250 000 funtów za

odcinek popularnego serialu, jak na przykład Simpsonowie, Malezja może dostać

ten sam odcinek za mniej niż 70 000 dolarow, a Bangladesz nawet za 25 000. I tak

program z bardzo wysokimi kosztami produkcji jest sprzedawany za grosze,

sprawiając, że lokalne wytwórnie, posiadające skromne, a często nawet bardzo

skromne środki, nie stanowią konkurencji.

Official translation:

Podobnie jak Ameryka rzuca tanie artykuły żywnościowe na rynki krajów

rozwijających się, niszcząc w ten sposób lokalną żywność i towary, tak też

programy telewizyjne są dumpingowane do Trzeciego Świata. System działa

następująco. Wyprodukowanie jednego odcinka takiego przeboju telewizyjnego,

jak Agentka o stu twarzach czy Cień Anioła może kosztować nawet do 5 milionów

dolarów. Pieniądze te zwracają się dzięki sprzedaży serialu jednej sieci telewizyjnej

w Stanach Zjednoczonych i Kanadzie. Sprzedaż do Europy przynosi już czysty

zysk. Kiedy rynek amerykański i europejski odczują przesyt, programy rzuca się po

cenach dumpingowych stacjom telewizyjnym Trzeciego Świata, zgodnie z dawno

ustaloną formułą płatności. Im większy jest w danym kraju średni dochód na

mieszkańca, tym wyżej znajduje się on na drabince „rozwoju” i tym więcej płaci. I

tak, podczas gdy brytyjska stacja musi wyłożyć za odcinek takiego przeboju jak

Simpsonowie kwotę 200-250 tysięcy dolarów, Malezja dostaje ten sam odcinek za

mniej niż 70 tysięcy, a Bangladesz za jedynie 25 tysięcy dolarów. Tak więc program

o bardzo wysokich kosztach produkcji jest sprzedawany za grosze, uniemożliwiając

tym samym konkurencję lokalnym programom, kręconym za wyjątkowo skromne

budżety

Stawiając lokalnych producentów pod ścianą/ niszcząc w ten sposób lokalną

żywność i towary - forcing locally produced commodities and goods to the

wall: Literal translation of this collocation would be terribly awkward, so

synonym was used, while the official translation proposes descriptive

equivalent. The ST presents us with animalisation of some sort, which was

hard to render and is not present in any of the versions

stosować dumping, dumpingować, rzucać na rynek – dump: In this case both

translators tried using a transferred term 'dumpingować', but resorted to

slightly formal recognised translations (1st version) and descriptive equivalent

(2nd version), most likely to avoid repetitions.

Po zdominowaniu/Kiedy rynek amerykański i europejski odczują przesyt - sewn

up:

When a market is sewn up, it is dominated by some organisation etc. version

proposed by the other translation seems to be a synonym for 'fed up'

Lokalne wytwórnie/lokalnym programom - local programming: The Polish

word 'program' in TV context poses immense difficulty in distinguishing if it

means a TV channel, or a programme in TV. Both translators opted for

functional equivalents, but different ones.

Skromne, a często nawet bardzo skromne/wyjątkowo skromne - modest to

miniscule budgets: Literal translation is out of question here, so both versions

contain paraphrases.

Text 2:

1But how can knowledge be 'knowledgeable ignorance? Orientalism is not exactly

unique. For centuries, scholars asserted that Africans were an 'inferior' race,

natural slaves, hewers of wood and drawers of water'. It was not prejudice that

created the 'peculiar institution', as slavery in the Southern states of the US was

euphemistically known – slavery was supported 5by science and structured

scientific investigation of the anatomy, biology and then the genetic make-up of

different races. The legacy of this discredited body of knowledge has not

evaporated, as we saw in the controversy surrounding The Bell Curve (1994),

which argued that there is a natural class of Americans, mainly blacks, who are

deficient in intelligence and the cognitive abilities required to deal with the

information society. Such ideas are now 10generally accepted as wrong, not only

wrong-headed but a clear misuse of science and knowledge. The political and

social consequences of attitudes that depended on this knowledge, however, still

bedevil race relations between black and white in America. Unpicking the racism

woven into the fabric of American society has been a long and painful process and

still an unfinished business. Muslim Americans, along with the Muslims the 15world

over, have another item to add to the agenda of necessary business: surmounting

the legacy of history, undoing the political, social and cultural consequences of

Orientalism.

GENERAL PROBLEMS

Intention: Present what the Orientalism is rooted in

Type of text: The mix defined before for the book: informative with strong

vocative element

Readership (recipients): educated laymen

'Setting': Book on social sciences

Language: Rather accessibly written, few examples of more sophisticated

language, metaphors present, but can be understood fairly easily.

Intention of translator: To convey information in a convincing and

accessible way, bring the readers to the author's point of view.

Method: Focused communicative translation.

SOME PARTICULAR PROBLEMS

Syntax: Long sentences exist, but are rather easy to follow.

Possible grammatical shifts: “It was not.”[3], “it is both harder and more

necessary”[17] , “The bell curve, which argues”[7]

Metaphors: “the legacy... has not evaporated”[6-7], “Unpicking racism

woven into the fabric of American society”[13]

W jaki jednak sposób wiedza może stać się „uczoną ignorancją”? Orientalizm nie

jest zjawiskiem unikalnym. Przez stulecia naukowcy dowodzili, że Afrykanie są rasą

'podrzędną', naturalnymi niewolnikami, 'drwalami i noszącymi wodę', jak napisane

jest o Gibeonitach w Biblii. To nie uprzedzenia utworzyły 'osobliwą instytucję', jak

było eufemistycznie nazywane niewolnictwo w Stanach Południowych –

niewolnictwo było wspierane przez naukę oraz naukowe badania anatomiczne,

biologiczne, a potem genetyczne osobników różnych ras. Dziedzictwo tej już

skompromitowanej gałęzi nauki nie wyparowało, jak mogliśmy zaobserwować na

przykładzie kontrowersji otaczających publikację „ The bell curve ” (1994), w której

dowodzono, że z istnieje pewna naturalna grupa społeczna Amerykanów, głównie

czarnych, którym brakuje inteligencji i zdolności poznawczych potrzebnych do

radzenia sobie w społeczeństwie informacyjnym. Tego typu idee są obecnie ogólnie

przyjęte za błędne; są nie tylko błędne z definicji, ale są też wyraźnym nadużyciem

nauki i wiedzy. Polityczne i społeczne konsekwencje postaw opierających się o tę

naukę wciąż jednak prześladują stosunki rasowe między czarnymi i białymi w

Ameryce. Wyplątanie z tkaniny Ameryki wplątanego tam rasizmu było i jest długim,

bolesnym procesem i wciąż pozostaje niedokończoną sprawą. Amerykańscy

muzułmanie, wraz z muzułmanami na całym świecie, muszą dodać kolejny element

do zbioru spraw do rozwiązania: Przezwyciężenie historii, odwołanie politycznych,

społecznych i kulturowych konsekwencji Orientalizmu.

This is a chiefly informative text. The informative and vocative elements

are the most important and need not be constrained by the duty to present

expressive features. According to Newmark's principle, the base of the text

was translated literally, and procedures were used when problems arose. The

basic question which needs to be asked in communicative translation is: What

is the content to be communicated? As it was previously mentioned in the

present paper, a translator cannot include all the contextual knowledge one

has in translation, so there has to be some focus chosen. In the text above,

focus during translation should be placed on presentation of data related to

racism and its history. The information should be convincing and for this

reason the message has to be grammatically correct and pleasant in style, but

the occasional metaphors should be vivid and, if needed, unsettling enough to

elicit desired response.

Here is the same fragment by different translator:

Ale jak wiedza może stać się „wszechwiedzącą niewiedzą?” Orientalizm nie jest pod

tym względem wyjątkiem. Przez całe stulecia uczeni zakładali, że Afrykańczycy są

„gorszą” rasą, naturalnymi niewolnikami, „rąbiącymi drwa i noszącymi wodę”. To

nie uprzedzenia stworzyły „osobliwą instytucję”, jak eufemistycznie określano

niewolnictwo w południowych stanach – niewolnictwo wspierała nauka i

systematyczne, naukowe badanie anatomii, biologii, a potem genetycznej

konstytucji różnych ras. Spuścizna tego zdyskredytowanego korpusu wiedzy nie

ulotniła się, czego dowodzi kontrowersja wokół książki The Bell Curve (1994),

utrzymującej, że istnieje naturalna klasa Amerykanów, głównie czarnoskórych,

której brakuje inteligencji i zdolności poznawczych wymaganych do należytego

funkcjonowania w społeczeństwie informacyjnym. Tego rodzaju idee powszechnie

uważa się teraz za błędne, nie tylko przewrotne, ale stanowiące jawne nadużycie

wiedzy naukowej. Jednak polityczne i społeczne konsekwencje postaw

uzależnionych od tej wiedzy wciąż prześladują stosunki rasowe między białymi i

czarnymi w Ameryce. Eliminacja rasizmu wplecionego w tkankę społeczeństwa

amerykańskiego to długotrwały i bolesny proces, który jeszcze się nie zakończył.

Amerykańscy muzułmanie, wraz z muzułmanami na całym świecie, dodają kolejny

punkt do programu niezbędnych działań: przezwyciężenie spuścizny historycznej,

zniesienie politycznych, społecznych i kulturowych konsekwencji orientalizmu.

Fig. 5. Problems encountered and chosen solutions for text 2

uczoną ignorancją/wszechwiedzącą niewiedzą – knowledgeable

ignorance: In both cases through-translation produced a translation label (but

different meanings were realised), and putting the expression in brackets is

meant to justify its possible awkwardness.

zjawiskiem unikalnym/nie jest pod tym względem wyjątkiem – unique:

here the additional noun „zjawiskiem” attempts to make the text sound more

natural; it is a kind of gloss, added to literal translation of the word 'unique'.

The other translation paraphrased the sentence.

jak napisane jest o Gibeonitach w Biblii – Such gloss may be needed it the

translation, as in Polish culture few people may remember where one can

encounter Gibeonites. The other translator decided to leave the fragment

translated literally and unattended in terms of the cultural contexts.

naukowe badania/systematyczne, naukowe badanie –Structured scientific

investigation: Taking advantage from the fact that communicative translation

may sometimes undertranslate, first version left out the „structured” part, as

scientific character of the research seems to be more important than the

particulars of it. The translator attempted to translate the 'structured' part of

the phrase, but it is hard to assess whether the semantic component of

systematicality is implied in the SL text or not.

gałęzi nauki/korpusu wiedzy - Body of knowledge: The term „body of

knowledge” has no Polish equivalent, so the approximate synonym was

chosen. The noun phrase korpus wiedzy exists in Polish, but is used as

established translation in more specialised context.

Publikację/książkę – Most people in Poland have probably not heard about

The bell curve, so the information that it is a book should be supplied. The

smoothest way to do it is to insert a gloss, as both the translators did.

naturalna grupa społeczna/naturalna klasa Amerykanów – natural class

of Americans: The first version rejected the term 'class' as a literal translation,

and chose more neutral term 'grupa społeczna', as 'class' may have some

communist connotations . The official translation contains the through –

translated expression naturalna klasa which is perfectly understandable.

Błędna z definicji/przewrotna – the term „Wrong-headed” is hard to

render in Polish, so componential analysis was employed:

Fig. 6. Componential analysis of the term “wrong-headed”

Wrong-

headed

Not willing to

change

Based on

wrong ideas

Negative

meaning

Used about

ideas

deliberatel

y perverse

in

judgement

twardogło

wy

+ - + - -

Uparty + +/- - - +

Błędny z

definicji

- + + + -

Szkodliwy - - + + -

Przewrotny - + + + +

The option which, according to CA, retains the most of the meaning is

“błędna z definicji”. The little loss of meaning in communicative translation is

tolerable, so in this case it need not be compensated. The option chosen by

the other translator retains other semantic components and the two terms

clearly are not equivalent, but are different, apparently equally privileged

interpretations of the SL word.

Wyplątanie z tkaniny ... wplątanego/Eliminacja ... wplecionego w tkankę

–Unpicking the racism woven into the fabric: Here, the first version contains

literally translated components, with slight shift on the level of collocation. In

the other version the metaphor itself was paraphrased and a familiar term

'tkanka społeczeństwa' was used.

było i jest – in Polish, perfect tenses are non-existent, so this meaning was

compensated by addition of terms relating to past and present. The other

translation contains 'jeszcze' to indicate the same.

Sprawą/punkt do programu niezbędnych działań – the English word

„business” has much broader meaning than the Polish naturalised term

„biznes”. The functional equivalent „sprawa” was used in the first version. The

other translator changed the words used and the surroundings of the

sentence.

III Text:

1 Hatred is sustained by wilful, 'knowledgeable ignorance'. Transcending hatred

and its perverse expressions is a work of knowledge, of rethinking the limitations

of what we have learnt and what we think we know. For centuries, Muslims,

Indians, Chinese and many others have been told that theirs are traditional

civilisations, stultifying, atrophied and rendered incapable by 5 their traditional

world-views. In truth, the West too, and America in particular, has become the

traditional civilisation, with all the rigidity and sanctimonious sense of its inherent

rightness that it has been so ready to condemn in other civilisations. The challenge

for everyone is to make the transition from dead transitionalism – the substitution

of the opinions of dead good men for doing one's own thinking – to living tradition,

using cherished values and concepts as systems 10of critical questioning and

adaptive devices to create meaningful change. The debates and ideas about

revitalising tradition in the non-West are usually invisible and audible, but they

have a great deal to teach the West. Dead traditionalism closes minds, fossilises

ideas and can end by subverting, counteracting and diminishing the very values

invoked as most sacred. The West in general, but America in particular, must also

face up to this challange. America 15demonstrates this character flaw more than

any other Western society.

The final fragment is located at the end of the book and again we shall

use function assessment to see the results.

Typical examples: This fragment seems to be the closest to the writing of

political pamphlets, trying to present the new vision of the reality.

'Ideal'style: This time style is even more persuasive and individual. This

points to the vocative and expressive functions.

Focus: The focus is definitely on the side of the reader, as the goal of this

text is to conclude the reader's journey throughout the author's mindview. For

this excursion to be mind-altering, as the authors would probably want it to, it

needs to be memorable and catchy, so the metaphors are used to bring ideas

closer to the reader.

Type of language: A bit figurative, but mostly compelling.

The text is mostly vocative, with expressive elements resurfacing more

often than in the previous parts.

GENERAL PROBLEMS

Intention: To sum up the ideas contained in a book and leave some effect

on the readership.

Type of text: Vocative

Readership (recipients): Educated laymen.

'Setting': Conclusion of a book on social studies.

Language: Rather simple, larger amount of metaphors than in the

previous passages, some are recurring throughout the text.

Intention of translator: To preserve the force nad the vividness of

metaphors at the same time.

Method: Communicative, with focus sliding towards individuality at

certain places in the text.

SOME PARTICULAR PROBLEMS

Syntax: Sentences are long, fairly complex.

Possible grammatical shifts: Transcending ... is a work of knowledge, of

rethinking (1-2) , have been told (4), theirs are... traditional civilisations(4)

Metaphors: dead traditionalism, stultified, atrophied, incapable

civilisation, dead good men, fossilise ideas

Repetitions: dead traditionalism.

Nienawiść jest podsycana przez rozmyślnie hodowaną, „uczoną ignorancję”.

Wyjście poza nienawiść i jej przewrotne manifestacje to zadanie wymagające

wiedzy, ponownego zastanowienia nad ograniczeniami tego, czego się nauczyliśmy

oraz tego, co wydaje nam się, że już wiemy. Przez wieki Muzułmanom, Hindusom,

Chińczykom oraz wielu innym wmawiono, że ich cywilizacje są tradycjonalistyczne,

ogłupiające, zanikłe i uznane za niezdolne do istnienia z powodu ich tradycyjnego

spojrzenia na świat. Naprawdę jednak Zachód, a szczególnie Ameryka, także

przekształciły się w cywilizację tradycjonalistyczną. Posiada ona surowość oraz

świętoszkowate poczucie inherentnej prawości, które z takim zapałem potępia u

innych cywilizacji. Dla wszystkich cywilizacji wyzwaniem jest przejście z martwego

tradycjonalizmu – przyjmowania opinii nieżyjących ideałów zamiast samodzielnego

myślenia – do żywej tradycji; stosowania tak bardzo cenionych wartości i koncepcji

jako sposobu na ocenę rzeczywistości oraz jako mechanizmy adaptacyjne, dzięki

którym możliwa będzie znacząca zmiana. Debaty i idee dotyczące rewitalizacji

tradycji w cywilizacjach innych niż zachodnia są zazwyczaj niewidoczne i

niesłyszalne, lecz Zachód mógłby wiele się z nich nauczyć. W martwym

tradycjonalizmie umysł jest zamknięty, idee kostnieją. Może on doprowadzić do

obalenia, pomniejszenia i przeciwstawienia się tym właśnie wartościom uznanym

za najświętsze. To wyzwanie stoi przed krajami Zachodu, a szczególnie przed

Ameryką. W Ameryce ta wada charakteru jest widoczna wyraźniej niż w każdym

innym społeczeństwie Zachodu.

Here is the official published version:

Nienawiść jest podtrzymywana przez umyślną „wszechwiedzącą niewiedzę”.

Przekroczenie nienawiści i jej zwyrodniałych wyrazów wymaga wiedzy, ponownego

przemyślenia ograniczeń tego, czego sie nauczyliśmy i co wydaje się nam, że

wiemy. Muzułmanom, Hindusom,Chińczykom i wielu innym nacjom wmawiano

przez stulecia, że są tradycyjnymi cywilizacjami, ośmieszanymi, podkopywanymi i

ubezwłasnowolnionymi przez swoje tradycyjne poglądy na świat. W rzeczywistości,

także Zachód, a szczególnie Ameryka, stał się tradycyjną cywilizacją, z całą

przynależną temu sztywnością i świętoszkowatym poczuciem wrodzonej słuszności,

które tak ochoczo potępia u innych cywilizacji. Wyzwaniem stojącym przed

wszystkimi jest przejście od martwego tradycjonalizmu – zastępowania wszystkiego

opiniami nieżyjących autorytetów – do żywej tradycji, która stosuje cenione

wartości i pojęcia jako systemy krytycznego zapytywania i narzędzia adaptacji tak,

aby spowodować istotną zmianę. Debaty i pomysły dotyczące rewitalizacji tradycji

w krajach nie-zachodnich są zazwyczaj niewidzialne i niesłyszalne, jednak Zachód

może się z nich bardzo wiele nauczyć. Martwy tradycjonalizm zamyka umysły,

zeskorupia idee i może się skończyć obaleniem, zneutralizowaniem i

umniejszeniem tych wartości, które uważa za najświętsze. Zachód ogólnie, zaś

Ameryka w szczególności, także musi stawić czoła temu wyzwaniu. Ameryka

objawia tę skazę na charakterze bardziej niż jakiekolwiek inne społeczeństwo

zachodnie.

Fig. 7. Problems encountered and chosen solutions for text 3.

Rozmyślnie hodowaną/umyślną – wilful: The question of which version is

more appropriate is a matter of what is more natural in the TL. “Umyślny”

does not collocate well with “ignorancja”, while “rozmyślnie hodowany” is a

bit of an overtranslation, but it may make the text more powerful.

Przekroczenie/wyjście poza – Transcend: There is no synonym, the

meaning that is implied needs to be explained by using descriptive equivalent.

“Przekroczenie nienawiści” is literal translation of the original term.

przewrotne manifestacje/zwyrodniałych wyrazów: perverse expressions.

One more time we have a case of different interpretation of the

ambiguous word. Perverse may mean both “contradictory to everything” and

“perverted”. The tables show how well the semantic components for both

interpretations are realised in proposed equivalents to the word perverse

Fig.8. Componential analysis for the word “perverse”

Weird, contradictory

Perverse Going against the

good or proper

stubborn Can be used

with

„manifestatio

n” (przejaw,

wyraz)

Przewrotny +/- + +

Zwyrodniały + - +

Przekorny + + -

Perverted

Perverse Persistent in wrong Depraved

Przewrotny + -

Zwyrodniały +/- +

Przekorny +/- -

It seems that for the first meaning the better term would be 'przewrotny',

while the second interpretation is represented better with the word

'zwyrodniały' (although there are not enough sememes to confirm it beyond

doubt). If there are no ways to specify the exact meaning of the SL term, a

translator has to rely on his or her translation capacity alone

Tego, czego się nauczyliśmy oraz tego, co wydaje nam się, że już

wiemy/tego, czego sie nauczyliśmy i co wydaje się nam, że wiemy – what we

have learnt and what we think we know. The only significant difference is the

repetition, which stresses that the two items (1.what we have learned and 2.

What we think we know) are separate (which is kind of overtranslation), what,

I admit, might not be the case. It has, however, a significant effect on the

readability of the text (less fluent).

Tradycjonalistyczne, ogłupiające, zanikłe i uznane za niezdolne do

istnienia z powodu ich tradycyjnego spojrzenia na świat/Tradycyjnymi

cywilizacjami, ośmieszanymi, podkopywanymi i ubezwłasnowolnionymi przez

swoje tradycyjne poglądy na świat – traditional civilisations, stultifying,

atrophied and rendered incapable by their traditional world-views: Again, the

shift of meaning is considerable because of different realisation of the ST. The

civilisations may be stultifying etc. because of the traditional world-views, or

just rendered incapable because of world-views. The translation proposed by

the first translator defends the former version, as the adjective stultifying (not

stultified) suggests so. Here is the componential analysis for the controversial

terms:

Fig.9. Componential analysis for the word “stultify”

Stultifying a) ridiculing, showing as stupid

b) showing as if with unsound mind, not legally responsible

c) rendering useless, crippling

Stultifying Render Make sth Unsound mind, Used with

useless appear

stupid

thus not legally

responsible

abstract nouns

ubezwłasno

wolniający

+/- - + +/-

ogłupiający - + - +

ośmieszając

y

- + - -/+

okaleczając

y

+ - - -

The results of the componential analysis are inconclusive. There is no

word that would cover the majority of meanings, thus one has to choose the

version, which would support only one of the interpretations.

The next problematic element in this sentence, “atrophied” is rendered as

“zanikły“ (which could be named a synonym) and “podkopywany”, while the

second version is clearly translator's feeling of what should be in the text to

achieve better effect.

When it comes to the third item, both versions have approximately the

same meaning and the choice was probably arbitrary in this case..

inherentnej/wrodzonej – inherent: the equivalent present in the first

version has been chosen to fit the slightly elevated style of the text, while the

official translation contains the neutral term.

przyjmowania opinii nieżyjących ideałów zamiast samodzielnego

myślenia/zastępowania wszystkiego opiniami nieżyjących autorytetów - the

substitution of the opinions of dead good men for doing one's own thinking:

The points of difference are the translations of the expression “good men”

with different functional equivalents and paraphrase used in the second

version.

W tradycjonalizmie idee kostnieją/Tradycjonalizm zeskorupia idee -

Traditionalism fossilises ideas: The shift of agent is present in the first version,

mostly to facilitate creation of a good collocation “kostnieć”, my equivalent for

fossilize. The other translator had no such problems, as his term,

“zeskorupiać”, has an active form, where the noun “idea” can be an object,

which is not possible in the case of the verb “kostnieć”.

Part II: Results and the interpretation of the survey

Conclusion

The research shown positive results of the componential analysis use as well

as As it can be observed, componential analysis served well so far. The conflict

concerning under-translation and over-translation is visible, as some texts

have vocative function predominant and communicative function coming a

close second. Glosses are apparently a good procedure to be used, what is in

agreement with Newmark's claim. Literal translation served as a solid base

method, because survey results shown that versions which chose it were often

the better ones, unless there were discrepancies on the level of particular

terms. Given the volume of current paper, it is impossible to delve deeper into

the subject. The model is not a strict set of rules; it could not be an algorithm

for a electronic translator, but rather a certain mindset that the translator can

look into during the process.

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