GG Problem 1989
2
_ The Problem o f Irrationality Patterns, Thinking, a nd Cognition. A Theory o f Judgment. HowARD MARGOLIS. Universitv ofChicago Press, Chicago, 1988. xii, 3 3 2 pp., illus. 4 5 ; paper, 15.95. W hy a r e people s o stubbornly a n d extrav- agantly irrational, s o often ignoring n o t only sound logic b u t also solid self-interest? This age-old philosopher's sigh i s t he departure point f o r Howard Margolis's stimulating, synthetic work on t h e psychology o f think- i n g i n general a n d o f scientific discovery a nd persuasion i n particular. Margolis advances a strikingly original view about h ow t h e mind works: i n contrast t o fashionable psy- chological approaches that draw analogies between thinking a nd computer programs, Margolis insists that a l l thinking a n d judg- ment can b e reduced t o pattern recogni- tion (p. 1 ) . Rules, algorithms, computa- tion, a n d logic play n o role in this P - cognition, although h e incessant shuttling back a n d forth between situational cues and ou r stored repertoire of patterns m a y ulti- mately produce a l l o f these. Bu t however logical a n d rational i s incidental products ( p . 94), t h e brain itself i s , on Margolis's account, a-logical and a-rational ( p . 4 ) . Margolis's answer t o t h e venerable prob- le m of irrationality i s a n evolutionary one: w e a r e irrational because we a r e made that way. I n successful species, cognition bal- ances between t h e advantages o f efficiency a n d o f careful attention t o particular situa- tions. P-cognition, suitably disciplined b y checking, ha s t h e virtues o f speed tem- pered b y a modicum of caution. It also h a s t h e vices o f those virtues: t h e more e n - trenched a pattern, th e more efficiently i t c a n b e triggered i n a ne w situation-and t h e more difficult i t will be t o correct a s a truly n e w situation will demand. W e err, b e i t by succumbing t o cognitive illusions o r through conservatism i n t he face o f scientific novelty, because we apply t he wrong pat- terns, misled by t h e ambiguity f cues, t h e tyranny of mental habit, o r both. Thus, t h e same processes that a r e responsible f o r ou r cognitive successes- our facility i n han- dling patterns i n faces, languages, places, a n d even entirely artificial things like chess a n d concert music ( p . 105)-are also t o blame f o r o u r cognitive failures. Margolis i s largely mute o n h ow we ac - quire t h e patterns o f P-cognition, h ow we select among t h e many such patterns i n o u r repertoire a n d what exactly pattern recogni- tion entails. An d wisely so , f o r h i s brief attempt (chapter 4 ) t o clarify this last plunges h i m into contradiction. Ho w t o reconcile Margolis's analogy between P-cog- nition a nd a computer curve-fitting program with h i s earlier insistence that cognition h a s nothing t o d o with rules, algorithms, a n d calculations? O r with h i s evolutionary cog- nitive ladder, which ascends from simple feedback through reasoning, with calcula- tion s t h e most recent a n d most tenuously established achievement ( p . 44)? T h e fatal attraction o f t he computer curve-fitting analogy f o r Margolis seems to b e i t s open- ness t o inspection a nd analysis, a n d t h e clarity these promise (Margolis himself i s a n admirablv clear writer). Margolis hopes that t he evolutionary out- look of P-cognition will prove i t s worth b y yielding ne w interpretations of o l d problems i n t h e psychology of cognitive illusions and i n t h e history o f scientific revolutions. What c a n P-cognition tell u s about hotly debated cognitive illusions produced, f o r example, b y t he Wason selection task a n d t he Kahne- m a n a n d Tversky ca b problem? Margolis suggests i t i s equally wrong to conclude from these experiments that t h e brain i s , o n t h e one hand, incapable o f heeding modus tollens o r base rates, o r , o n t he other, that t he laws o f thought a r e t h e laws o f logic. Rather, subjects i n these experiments react t o ambiguities i n language a n d scenario b y applying otherwise valid patterns to t h e wrong situation: they give t he right answers t o t h e wrong questions. Thus far, Margolis's interpretation persuasively challenges theo- rists from Piaget t o Fodor t o L. Cohen wh o liken thinking t o logic a n d calculation, replacing these implicit logical rules with habits o f mind prompted b y context. However, Margolis nonetheless insists that these context-cued judgments deserve t o b e called illusions, because misreading admittedly ambiguous cues still counts as irrationality t o him. This view i s i n turn anchored i n t h e conviction that, f o r exam- ple, t h e c a b problem h a s only o n e right answer a s f a r a s statisticians a r e concerned, however much philosophers a n d psycholo- gists wh o should know better m a y bicker about i t (p. 306). B ut here i t i s Margolis wh i s deluded b h i s ow n preoccupation with cut-and-dried standards o f rationality: there a r e i n fact perfectly respectable alterna- tive solutions t o t he c a b problem, f o r exam- p l e those using Neyman-Pearsonian statisti- c al methods. Some, indeed most, situations a r e genuinely ambiguous. Unfortunately, this i s n o passing slip, f o r i t seriously handi- caps Margolis's attempts t o analyze cogni- tive illusions i n P-cognitive terms, leading h i m t o emphasize h i s unconvincing accounts o f h ow scenario ambiguities produce illu- sions over h i s convincing accounts o f h ow language ambiguities do-presumably b e - cause subjects c a n hardly b e judged irratio- n a l formisconstruing equivocal wording. I n h i s interpretation o f t he c a b problem, f o r example, this preference f o r scenario ambi- guities obliges Margolis t o make t he dubi- o u s claim that reasoning from causes t o effects i s more habitual than reasoning from effects t o causes. What c a n P-cognition tell us that we didn't already know about such well-re- searched episodes i n t he history o f science a s t h e Copernican Revolution? Margolis con- tends that Aristotelian physics, religious qualms, common sense, a nd (most surpris- ingly) t h e equant played a t best a secondarv role in inhibiting t h e initial heliocentric insight and i t s subsequent spread. Rather, t h e tenacious pattern o f contiguous, nest- e d spheres that allowed Ptolemaic astrono- mers t o order the planets a n d estimate t he relative distances between them (albeit somewhat arbitrarily, especially i n t he case o f t h e inferior planets) blocked both Coper- nicus's Arab predecessors a n d h i s immediate successors from grasping t h e (for Margolis) patent advantages o f coherence offered b y heliocentrism. On this account, both T y - cho's shattering o f t h e heavenlyspheres a n d h i s compromise system a r e a grand anticli- max-far more decisive w a s t he mere pass- in g o f time between 1543 an d t h e 1580s, allowing a n ew generation o f astronomers t o come t o maturity always aware o f t h e C o - pernican possibility a n d t o find that t h e Copernican argument explains s o much s o neatly that i t c a n hardly b e wholly wrong p. 257). Alas, there i s scant evidence t o support this pattern-centered account, a nd a consid- erable amount that contradicts it. O n t h e iconographic evidence of t h e sort Margolis mostly invokes, t he famous diagram in 1.10 o f De revolutionibus strongly suggests that Copernicus himself still clung t o t h e contig- uous sphere scheme, although i t wa s n o longer necessary t o compute relative plane- tary distances. Neither Copernicans n o r their adversaries made much o f t h e nested spheres issue, a nd Kepler displayed a near lunatic affection f o r cozy nested patterns i n h i s ardently Copernican Mysterium cosmo- graphicum. A t a deeper level, Margolis's reading o t h e Copernican revolution be- trays t h e same crippling preoccupation with wrong a n d right answers that distorts h i s SCIENCE VOL 2 44 I094 o n A u g u s t 2 3 , 2 0 1 2 w w w . s c i e n c e m a g . o r g D o w n l o a d e d f r o m
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The
P r o b l e m
o f
I r r a t i o n a l i t y
P a t t e r n s ,
T h i n k i n g , a n d
C o g n i t i o n .
A T h e o r y
o f
J u d g m e n t . HowARD M A R G O L I S .
U n i v e r s i t v
o f C h i c a g o
P r e s s , C h i c a g o ,
1 9 8 8 .
x i i , 3 3 2
p p . ,
i l l u s .
4 5 ;
p a p e r ,
1 5 . 9 5 .
Wh y
a r e p e o p l e
s o s t u b b o r n l y
a n d
e x t r a v -
a g a n t l y
i r r a t i o n a l ,
s o
o f t e n i g n o r i n g n o t
o n l y
s o u n d
l o g i c
b u t
a l s o s o l i d s e l f - i n t e r e s t ?
T h i s
a g e - o l d
p h i l o s o p h e r ' s
s i g h
i s t h e
d e p a r t u r e
p o i n t
f o r
H o w a r d M a r g o l i s ' s
s t i m u l a t i n g ,
s y n t h e t i c
w o r k
o n
t h e
p s y c h o l o g y
o f
t h i n k -
i n g
i n
g e n e r a l
a n d
o f s c i e n t i f i c
d i s c o v e r y
a n d
p e r s u a s i o n
i n
p a r t i c u l a r .
M a r g o l i s
a d v a n c e s
a
s t r i k i n g l y
o r i g i n a l
v i e w a b o u t
how
t h e
m i n d w o r k s :
i n c o n t r a s t t o f a s h i o n a b l e
p s y -
c h o l o g i c a l
a p p r o a c h e s
t h a t
d r a w a n a l o g i e s
b e t w e e n
t h i n k i n g
a n d c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s ,
M a r g o l i s
i n s i s t s
t h a t
a l l
t h i n k i n g
a n d
j u d g -
m e n t c a n
b e
r e d u c e d
t o
p a t t e r n
r e c o g n i -
t i o n
( p .
1 ) . R u l e s , a l g o r i t h m s ,
c o m p u t a -
t i o n ,
a n d
l o g i c
p l a y
n o
r o l e i n
t h i s
P -
c o g n i t i o n ,
a l t h o u g h
t h e
i n c e s s a n t
s h u t t l i n g
b a c k
a n d
f o r t h b e t w e e n
s i t u a t i o n a l
c u e s a n d
o u r s t o r e d r e p e r t o i r e
o f
p a t t e r n s
m a y
u l t i -
m a t e l y
p r o d u c e
a l l
o f
t h e s e .
B u t h o w e v e r
l o g i c a l
a n d r a t i o n a l
i t s
i n c i d e n t a l p r o d u c t s
( p . 9 4 ) ,
t h e
b r a i n
i t s e l f i s ,
o n
M a r g o l i s ' s
a c c o u n t ,
a - l o g i c a l
a n d a - r a t i o n a l
( p .
4 ) .
M a r g o l i s ' s
a n s w e r
t o t h e v e n e r a b l e
p r o b -
l e m
o f i r r a t i o n a l i t y
i s a n e v o l u t i o n a r y
o n e :
w e
a r e
i r r a t i o n a l b e c a u s e we
a r e m a d e t h a t
w a y .
I n
s u c c e s s f u l
s p e c i e s ,
c o g n i t i o n
b a l -
a n c e s b e t w e e n
t h e a d v a n t a g e s
o f
e f f i c i e n c y
a n d
o f c a r e f u l a t t e n t i o n
t o
p a r t i c u l a r
s i t u a -
t i o n s .
P - c o g n i t i o n ,
s u i t a b l y
d i s c i p l i n e d b y
c h e c k i n g ,
h a s
t h e
v i r t u e s o f
s p e e d
t e m -
p e r e d b y
a
m o d i c u m
o f c a u t i o n . I t a l s o h a s
t h e
v i c e s
o f
t h o s e
v i r t u e s :
t h e
m o r e e n -
t r e n c h e d
a
p a t t e r n ,
t h e
m o r e e f f i c i e n t l y
i t
c a n
b e
t r i g g e r e d
i n a new
s i t u a t i o n - a n d
t h e
m o r e
d i f f i c u l t i t
w i l l
b e
t o
c o r r e c t
a s
a
t r u l y
n e w s i t u a t i o n
w i l l d e m a n d .
We
e r r ,
b e
i t
b y
s u c c u m b i n g
t o
c o g n i t i v e
i l l u s i o n s
o r
t h r o u g h
c o n s e r v a t i s m i n t h e
f a c e
o f
s c i e n t i f i c
n o v e l t y ,
b e c a u s e
we a p p l y
t h e w r o n g p a t -
t e r n s ,
m i s l e d
b y
t h e
a m b i g u i t y
o f
c u e s ,
t h e
t y r a n n y
o f m e n t a l h a b i t ,
o r
b o t h .
T h u s ,
t h e
s a m e
p r o c e s s e s
t h a t
a r e r e s p o n s i b l e
f o r o u r
c o g n i t i v e
s u c c e s s e s - o u r
f a c i l i t y
i n
h a n -
d l i n g p a t t e r n s
i n
f a c e s , l a n g u a g e s ,
p l a c e s ,
a n d e v e n e n t i r e l y
a r t i f i c i a l
t h i n g s
l i k e c h e s s
a n d c o n c e r t m u s i c
( p . 1 0 5 ) - a r e
a l s o
t o
b l a m e
f o r o u r
c o g n i t i v e f a i l u r e s .
M a r g o l i s
i s
l a r g e l y
m u t e
o n
how we a c -
q u i r e
t h e
p a t t e r n s
o f
P - c o g n i t i o n ,
how we
s e l e c t a m o n g
t h e
m a n y
s u c h
p a t t e r n s
i n o u r
r e p e r t o i r e
a n d
w h a t
e x a c t l y p a t t e r n
r e c o g n i -
t i o n
e n t a i l s .
And w i s e l y
s o ,
f o r h i s
b r i e f
a t t e m p t ( c h a p t e r
4 )
t o
c l a r i f y
t h i s
l a s t
p l u n g e s
h i m
i n t o c o n t r a d i c t i o n .
How t o
r e c o n c i l e
M a r g o l i s ' s
a n a l o g y
b e t w e e n
P - c o g -
n i t i o n a n d a
c o m p u t e r
c u r v e - f i t t i n g
p r o g r a m
w i t h h i s
e a r l i e r
i n s i s t e n c e
t h a t
c o g n i t i o n
h a s
n o t h i n g t o
d o w i t h r u l e s , a l g o r i t h m s ,
a n d
c a l c u l a t i o n s ? O r
w i t h h i s
e v o l u t i o n a r y
c o g -
n i t i v e l a d d e r ,
w h i c h
a s c e n d s
f r o m s i m p l e
f e e d b a c k
t h r o u g h r e a s o n i n g ,
w i t h
c a l c u l a -
t i o n a s t h e
m o s t r e c e n t
a n d m o s t
t e n u o u s l y
e s t a b l i s h e d a c h i e v e m e n t
( p . 4 4 ) ?
T h e
f a t a l
a t t r a c t i o n
o f t h e c o m p u t e r
c u r v e - f i t t i n g
a n a l o g y
f o r M a r g o l i s
s e e m s
t o
b e
i t s
o p e n -
n e s s
t o i n s p e c t i o n
a n d a n a l y s i s ,
a n d
t h e
c l a r i t y t h e s e
p r o m i s e
( M a r g o l i s
h i m s e l f i s a n
a d m i r a b l v
c l e a r
w r i t e r ) .
M a r g o l i s
h o p e s
t h a t
t h e
e v o l u t i o n a r y
o u t -
l o o k o f P - c o g n i t i o n
w i l l
p r o v e
i t s
w o r t h
b y
y i e l d i n g
new i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s
o f o l d
p r o b l e m s
i n t h e
p s y c h o l o g y
o f
c o g n i t i v e
i l l u s i o n s
a n d
i n t h e
h i s t o r y
o f s c i e n t i f i c
r e v o l u t i o n s .
W h a t
c a n
P - c o g n i t i o n
t e l l
u s a b o u t
h o t l y
d e b a t e d
c o g n i t i v e
i l l u s i o n s
p r o d u c e d ,
f o r
e x a m p l e ,
b y
t h e
Wason
s e l e c t i o n
t a s k
a n d
t h e
K a h n e -
man
a n d
T v e r s k y
c a b
p r o b l e m ?
M a r g o l i s
s u g g e s t s
i t i s
e q u a l l y
w r o n g
t o c o n c l u d e
f r o m t h e s e e x p e r i m e n t s
t h a t
t h e b r a i n
i s ,
o n
t h e
o n e
h a n d ,
i n c a p a b l e
o f
h e e d i n g
m o d u s
t o l l e n s
o r
b a s e r a t e s ,
o r , o n t h e
o t h e r , t h a t
t h e
l a w s o f
t h o u g h t
a r e t h e
l a w s
o f
l o g i c .
R a t h e r ,
s u b j e c t s
i n
t h e s e
e x p e r i m e n t s
r e a c t
t o a m b i g u i t i e s
i n
l a n g u a g e
a n d s c e n a r i o
b y
a p p l y i n g
o t h e r w i s e
v a l i d
p a t t e r n s
t o
t h e
w r o n g
s i t u a t i o n :
t h e y
g i v e
t h e
r i g h t
a n s w e r s
t o
t h e
w r o n g q u e s t i o n s .
T h u s
f a r ,
M a r g o l i s ' s
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n p e r s u a s i v e l y
c h a l l e n g e s
t h e o -
r i s t s
f r o m
P i a g e t
t o
F o d o r t o L . C o h e n
wh o l i k e n t h i n k i n g
t o
l o g i c
a n d
c a l c u l a t i o n ,
r e p l a c i n g
t h e s e
i m p l i c i t
l o g i c a l
r u l e s
w i t h
h a b i t s
o f m i n d
p r o m p t e d b y
c o n t e x t .
H o w e v e r ,
M a r g o l i s
n o n e t h e l e s s
i n s i s t s
t h a t t h e s e
c o n t e x t - c u e d
j u d g m e n t s
d e s e r v e
t o
b e c a l l e d
i l l u s i o n s ,
b e c a u s e
m i s r e a d i n g
a d m i t t e d l y a m b i g u o u s
c u e s
s t i l l
c o u n t s a s
i r r a t i o n a l i t y t o
h i m . T h i s
v i e w
i s
i n
t u r n
a n c h o r e d
i n
t h e
c o n v i c t i o n
t h a t ,
f o r e x a m -
p l e ,
t h e c a b
p r o b l e m
h a s
o n l y
o n e
r i g h t
a n s w e r
a s f a r
a s
s t a t i s t i c i a n s
a r e
c o n c e r n e d ,
h o w e v e r m u c h
p h i l o s o p h e r s
a n d
p s y c h o l o -
g i s t s
wh o s h o u l d k n o w
b e t t e r
m a y
b i c k e r
a b o u t
i t
( p .
3 0 6 ) .
B u t
h e r e
i t
i s
M a r g o l i s
wh o
i s d e l u d e d
b y
h i s own
p r e o c c u p a t i o n
w i t h
c u t - a n d - d r i e d
s t a n d a r d s
o f
r a t i o n a l i t y :
t h e r e a r e
i n f a c t
p e r f e c t l y
r e s p e c t a b l e
a l t e r n a -
t i v e
s o l u t i o n s
t o t h e
c a b
p r o b l e m ,
f o r e x a m -
p l e
t h o s e u s i n g
N e y m a n - P e a r s o n i a n
s t a t i s t i -
c a l
m e t h o d s .
S o m e ,
i n d e e d
m o s t ,
s i t u a t i o n s
a r e
g e n u i n e l y
a m b i g u o u s .
U n f o r t u n a t e l y ,
t h i s i s n o p a s s i n g
s l i p ,
f o r
i t
s e r i o u s l y
h a n d i -
c a p s M a r g o l i s ' s
a t t e m p t s
t o a n a l y z e
c o g n i -
t i v e
i l l u s i o n s
i n P - c o g n i t i v e
t e r m s ,
l e a d i n g
h i m t o e m p h a s i z e
h i s u n c o n v i n c i n g
a c c o u n t s
o f how
s c e n a r i o
a m b i g u i t i e s
p r o d u c e
i l l u -
s i o n s o v e r
h i s c o n v i n c i n g
a c c o u n t s
o f how
l a n g u a g e a m b i g u i t i e s
d o - p r e s u m a b l y
b e -
c a u s e s u b j e c t s c a n
h a r d l y
b e j u d g e d
i r r a t i o -
n a l
f o r m i s c o n s t r u i n g
e q u i v o c a l
w o r d i n g .
I n
h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
o f
t h e c a b p r o b l e m ,
f o r
e x a m p l e , t h i s
p r e f e r e n c e f o r
s c e n a r i o a m b i -
g u i t i e s
o b l i g e s
M a r g o l i s
t o
m a k e
t h e
d u b i -
o u s c l a i m
t h a t r e a s o n i n g
f r o m
c a u s e s
t o
e f f e c t s
i s
m o r e
h a b i t u a l t h a n
r e a s o n i n g
f r o m
e f f e c t s
t o c a u s e s .
W h a t c a n
P - c o g n i t i o n
t e l l u s t h a t
we
d i d n ' t
a l r e a d y
k n o w
a b o u t
s u c h w e l l - r e -
s e a r c h e d
e p i s o d e s i n t h e
h i s t o r y
o f
s c i e n c e
a s
t h e
C o p e r n i c a n
R e v o l u t i o n ?
M a r g o l i s c o n -
t e n d s t h a t
A r i s t o t e l i a n
p h y s i c s ,
r e l i g i o u s
q u a l m s ,
common s e n s e ,
a n d
( m o s t
s u r p r i s -
i n g l y )
t h e
e q u a n t
p l a y e d a t
b e s t a
s e c o n d a r v
r o l e
i n
i n h i b i t i n g t h e
i n i t i a l
h e l i o c e n t r i c
i n s i g h t
a n d i t s s u b s e q u e n t
s p r e a d .
R a t h e r ,
t h e t e n a c i o u s
p a t t e r n
o f
c o n t i g u o u s ,
n e s t -
e d
s p h e r e s
t h a t a l l o w e d
P t o l e m a i c
a s t r o n o -
m e r s
t o o r d e r
t h e p l a n e t s
a n d
e s t i m a t e t h e
r e l a t i v e
d i s t a n c e s
b e t w e e n t h e m ( a l b e i t
s o m e w h a t a r b i t r a r i l y ,
e s p e c i a l l y
i n t h e
c a s e
o f t h e
i n f e r i o r
p l a n e t s )
b l o c k e d
b ot h C o p er -
n i c u s ' s
A r a b
p r e d e c e s s o r s
a n d
h i s
i m m e d i a t e
s u c c e s s o r s
f r o m g r a s p i n g
t h e
( f o r
M a r g o l i s )
p a t e n t
a d v a n t a g e s
o f
c o h e r e n c e
o f f e r e d b y
h e l i o c e n t r i s m .
On
t h i s a c c o u n t ,
b o t h
T y -
c h o ' s
s h a t t e r i n g
o f t h e
h e a v e n l y s p h e r e s
a n d
h i s
c o m p r o m i s e
s y s t e m
a r e
a
g r a n d
a n t i c l i -
m a x - f a r
m o r e
d e c i s i v e
w a s
t h e
m e r e
p a s s -
i n g
o f t i m e
b e t w e e n
1 5 4 3 a n d
t h e
1 5 8 0 s ,
a l l o w i n g
a
n e w
g e n e r a t i o n
o f
a s t r o n o m e r s
t o
c o m e
t o
m a t u r i t y
a l w a y s a w a r e
o f t h e C o -
p e r n i c a n
p o s s i b i l i t y
a n d t o f i n d
t h a t t h e
C o p e r n i c a n
a r g u m e n t
e x p l a i n s
s o
m u c h
s o
n e a t l y
t h a t
i t c a n
h a r d l y
b e w h o l l y w r o n g
p . 2 5 7 ) .
A l a s ,
t h e r e i s s c a n t
e v i d e n c e
t o
s u p p o r t
t h i s
p a t t e r n - c e n t e r e d
a c c o u n t ,
a n d
a c o n s i d -
e r a b l e
a m o u n t t h a t c o n t r a d i c t s
i t . On t h e
i c o n o g r a p h i c
e v i d e n c e
o f
t h e
s o r t
M a r g o l i s
m o s t l y i n v o k e s ,
t h e f a m o u s d i a g r a m
i n
1 . 1 0
o f
De
r e v o l u t i o n i b u s
s t r o n g l y s u g g e s t s
t h a t
C o p e r n i c u s
h i m s e l f
s t i l l
c l u n g
t o
t h e
c o n t i g -
u o u s
s p h e r e
s c h e m e ,
a l t h o u g h
i t
w a s
n o
l o n g e r
n e c e s s a r y
t o
c o m p u t e
r e l a t i v e
p l a n e -
t a r y
d i s t a n c e s . N e i t h e r
C o p e r n i c a n s
n o r
t h e i r
a d v e r s a r i e s m a d e
m u c h
o f
t h e
n e s t e d
s p h e r e s
i s s u e ,
a n d
K e p l e r
d i s p l a y e d
a n e a r
l u n a t i c
a f f e c t i o n
f o r
c o z y
n e s t e d
p a t t e r n s
i n
h i s
a r d e n t l y C o p e r n i c a n
M y s t e r i u m
c o s m o -
g r a p h i c u m .
A t
a
d e e p e r l e v e l ,
M a r g o l i s ' s
r e a d i n g
o f
t h e
C o p e r n i c a n
r e v o l u t i o n b e -
t r a y s t h e
s a m e
c r i p p l i n g
p r e o c c u p a t i o n
w i t h
w r o n g
a n d
r i g h t
a n s w e r s
t h a t
d i s t o r t s
h i s
SCIENCE
VOL
244
I 0 9 4
7/26/2019 GG Problem 1989
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/gg-problem-1989 2/2
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
o f c o g n i t i v e
i l l u s i o n s .
A l -
t h o u g h h e
s t r u g g l e s t o s e e t h e
p a s t
i n
i t s
own t e r m s , h e
c a n n o t
r e s i s t
r e p r o a c h i n g
e a r l y o p p o n e n t s o f D a r w i n a n d o f
C o p e r n i -
c u s
f o r t h e i r
c o g n i t i v e l y e x p l i c a b l e b u t
r a t i o -
n a l l y
i n d e f e n s i b l e
f a i l u r e
t o e m b r a c e t h e
n e w
t h e o r i e s - L y e l l ' s r e s i s t a n c e
t o
n a t u r a l
s e l e c -
t i o n
i s c o g n i t i v e l y
n o t
m u c h
d i f f e r e n t f r o m
( n o t
m u c h m o r e l o g i c a l
t h a n ) r e s i s t a n c e t o
w e a ri n g h o c k ey h e l m e t s ( p . 1 9 2 ) , j u s t
a s
s u b j e c t s
i n
p s y c h o l o g i c a l
e x p e r i m e n t s
a r e
s t u b b o r n
a n d
d o w n r i g h t s t u p i d
i n n o t
a p p l y i n g
m o d u s t o l l e n s o r B a y e s ' s
t h e o r e m .
I n
b o t h c o g n i t i v e
p s y c h o l o g y
a n d
t h e
h i s t o r y o f
s c i e n c e , t h i s n o r m a t i v e i d e e
f i x e
p r e v e n t s
M a r g o l i s
f r o m
p o s i n g
m o r e i n t e r -
e s t i n g d e s c r i p t i v e
q u e s t i o n s
a b o u t how we
c o p e
w i t h
a m b i g u i t y
a n d how t h e
s t a n d a r d s
f o r e x p l a n a t i o n ,
n o t
j u s t t h i s o r t h a t e x p l a n a -
t i o n ,
c h a n g e
i n
s c i e n c e .
A l t h o u g h a n a b i d i n g
c on c er n w i t h
r a t i o n a l i t y m o t i v a t e d M a r g o -
l i s s
s t u d y ,
t h e r e s e e m s
t o
b e
n o t h i n g i n h i s
P - c o g n l i t i o n
v i e w
p e r s e t h a t
w ou l d c o m m i t
h i m
t o s u c h a n a r r o w
n o r m a t i v e s t a n c e .
M a r g o l i s
b e l i e v e s
h i s
a c c o u n t
w i l l
p r o v e
i t s e l f
b y i t s
e m p i r i c a l
a p p l i c a t i o n s
i n
f i e l d s
l i k e
c o g n i t i v e
p s y c h o l o g y
a n d
h i s t o r y o f
s c i e n c e .
We b e l i e v e , o n
t h e
c o n t r a r y , t h a t t h e
r e s u l t s o f t h e s e i n i t i a l
e m p i r i c a l
a p p l i c a t i o n s
a r e
l a r g e l y d i s a p p o i n t i n g , b u t
t h a t t h e
g e n e r -
a l D a r w i n i a n
o u t l o o k o f
P - c o g n i t i o n
a b l y
d e v e l o p e d b y M a r g o l i s
w i l l
p r o v e
o f
e n d u r -
i n g v a l u e .
LORRAINE
DASTON
D e p a r t m e n t o f H i s t o r y ,
B r a t n d e i s
U n i i v e r s i t y ,
W a l t h a m ,
0 2 2 5 4
GERD GIGERENZER
D e p a r t m e n t
o f
P s y c h o l o g y ,
U n i i v e r s i t y o f
C o t n s t a n i c e ,
C o n i s t a n i c e ,
F e d e r a l R e p u b l i c
o f G e r m a n y
M i c r o b i a l
E c o l o g y
M i c r o b i a l
M a t s .
P h y s i o l o g i c a l E c o lo g y o f
B c n -
t h i c
M i c r o b i a l
C o m m u n i t i c s . YEHUDA
COHEN
a n d EUGENE
R O S E N B E R G , E d s . A m e r i c a n
S o c i c -
t v
f o r
M i c r o b i o l o g y , W a s h i n g t o n , D C , 1 9 8 9 .
x v i i i ,
4 9 4 p p . ,
i l l u s .
7 9 ;
t o AS M m e m b e r s , 5 9 .
F r o m a
s c m i n a r , E i l a t ,
I s r a e l ,
S e p t .
1 9 8 7 .
L a y e r e d
m i c r o b i a l
c o m m u n i t i e s ,
a n d
t h e
c o m p l e x
a n d
i n t e n s e
b i o g e o c h e m i c a l i n t e r -
a c t i o n s
t h a t o c c u r
w i t h i n
t h e m ,
c o n s t i t u t e
a
t y p e
o f
c o m m u n i t y
s t r u c t u r e
t h a t
i s
f a s t
b e c o m i n g
a n
i m p o r t a n t
p a r a d i g m
f o r t h e
u n d e r s t a n d i n g
o f
m i c r o b i a l e c o l o g y . S u c h
c o m m u n i t i e s , w i t h i n
w h i c h
a r e
i n c l u d e d
m i -
c r o b i a l m a t s ,
o f t e n
r e m a i n p o o r l y a p p r e c i a t -
e d o r
u n d e r s t o o d
e v e n
b y
t h o s e
i n
t h e
f i e l d ,
h o w e v e r .
F o r
t h i s r e a s o n
a l o n e ,
M i c r o b i a l
M a t s :
P h y s i o l o g i c a l E c o l o g y o f B e n t h i c
M i c r o b i a l
C o m n t n u n i t i e s
i s
h i g h l y
r e c o m m e n d e d .
T h i s
i n t e r e s t i n g a n d
i n f o r m a t i v e
b o o k p r e s e n t s
t h e r e s u l t s o f
a
1 9 8 7 s y m p o s i u m :
i t s
r a t h e r
t a r d y p u b l i c a t i o n i s a p i t y , b u t
m u c h
o f
t h e
m a t e r i a l
c o n t a i n e d i n i t i s e x c e l l e n t a n d n o t
a t a l l
o u t d a t e d .
A s
e x p e c t e d ,
t h e r e i s
v a r i a t i o n i n s t y l e a n d
q u a l i t y
a m o n g
t h e
p a p e r s ,
b u t
t h e v o l u m e
i n c l u d e s
w e l l - w r i t t e n c o n t r i b u t i o n s
f r o m
m a n y o f
t h e
m a j o r l a b o r a t o r i e s
i n v o l v e d
i n
m i c r o b i a l m a t
r e s e a r c h .
I n c o v e r a g e
i t
r a n g e s
f r o m
t h e
b a s i c
p h y s i o l o g y
o f
m a t
o r g a n i s m s ,
t o i s o t o p i c a n d
m o l e c u l a r
g e n e t i c
m e t h o d s
f o r
t h e
s t u d y o f m a t
p o p u l a t i o n s , t o
c h e m i -
c a l
a n d
p a l e o m i c r o b i o l o g i c a l
m e t h o d s o f
l o o k i n g a t p r e s e n t a n d
p a s t
m a t c o m m u n i -
t i e s .
T h e
b o o k
i n c l u d e s
e x c e l l e n t d e s c r i p t i o n s
o f
a
v a r i e t y
o f d i f f e r e n t m a t
e n v i r o n m e n t s
( h o t s p r i n g s ,
h y d r o t h e r m a l v e n t s ,
a n d
h y -
p e r s a l i n e p o n d s a n d
l a k e s ) .
T h e r e
a r e d i s c u s -
s i o n s o f
t h e
s t r u c t u r e , f u n c t i o n ,
a n d
c h e m i s -
t r y
o f
t h e s e
e n v i r o n m e n t s ,
i n c l u d i n g
r e d o x
c h e m i s t r y ,
o x y g e n g r a d i e n t s , c a r b o n
c y c l i n g ,
a n d
l i g h t
p e n e t r a t i o n
a n d
q u a l i t y ,
a l o n g
w i t h
p r e s e n t a t i o n s
o f
t e c h n i q u e s
u s e d
t o
s t u d y t h e s e
f e a t u r e s .
T h e s e
i n c l u d e
d i s c u s -
s i o n s
o f m i c r o e l e c t r o d e s a n d
n e w c h e m i c a l
a p p r o a c h e s a n d a n
i n t r i g u i n g c h a p t e r o n t h e
u s e
o f
f i b e r
o p t i c l i g h t g u i d e s
f o r
t h e
m e a -
s u r e m e n t
o f
s p e c t r a l
q u a l i t y
i n
m a t c o m m u -
n i t i e s ,
b y
B .
B . J o r g e n s e n . T h e r e
i s
a n e n t i r e
s e c t i o n
d e v o t e d
t o t h e
p h y s i o l o g y
a n d
b i o -
c h e m i s t r y
o f s o m e
o f
t h e
m a j o r
m a t - b u i l d -
i n g o r g a n i s m s
a n d
t e c h n i q u e s
u s e d
t o
s t u d y
t h e m
a n d
a n o t h e r
t o t h e i r
e v o l u t i o n
a n d
p h y l o g e n y , i n c l u d i n g
a n
i n f o r m a t i v e
d i s c u s -
s i o n o f
m e t h o d s
o f
m o l e c u l a r
p h y l o g e n y
b y
T u r n e r e t a l . T h e f i n a l s e c t i o n d e a l s w i t h
c h e m i c a l
a n d
p a l e o b i o l o g i c a l
s t u d i e s
o f
m o d e r n
a n d a n c i e n t
m a t s , c o n c l u d i n g
w i t h
a n
e x c e l l e n t
c h a p t e r
b y
A n d r e w
K n o l l
d i s -
c u s s i n g t h e
p a l e o m i c r o b i o l o g y
o f a n c i e n t
m a t
c o m m u n i t i e s . K n o l l ' s
c o n c l u d i n g
s t a t e -
m e n t ,
L i m i t s t o t h e
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
o f P r o -
t e r o z o i c
s e d i m e n t a r y
s u c c e s s i o n s
. . . w i l l
n o t
b e
r e a c h e d u n t i l
we k n o w
m o r e a b o u t
t h e
p r e s e n t , p r o v i d e s
a
s t r o n g
r a t i o n a l e f o r
t h e
s t u d y
o f t h e
m o d e r n m a t
c o m m u n i t i e s
d i s c u s s e d
e l s e w h e r e i n
t h e
b o o k . I n
f a c t ,
r e a d i n g
t h i s
c h a p t e r
f i r s t
m i g h t
w e l l
p r o v i d e
t h e
r e a d e r
w i t h a
v a l u a b l e
p e r s p e c t i v e
f o r
m a n y
o f t h e o t h e r s t u d i e s
r e p o r t e d
h e r e .
I n
t h i s
r e g a r d
t h e
l a c k i n
t h e
b o o k
o f
a n
o v e r v i e w o f t h e s u b j e c t i s
t r o u b l e s o m e .
A p a r t
f r o m a
p r e f a c e
b y C o h e n l i t t l e
o r
n o
e f f o r t
i s
m a d e
t o i n t r o d u c e e i t h e r n o n - e x -
p e r t s
o r
s t u d e n t s ,
wh o
m i g h t p o t e n t i a l l y
u s e
t h i s
b o o k , t o
t h e b r o a d e r
p i c t u r e
o f t h e
t y p e s
o f
m a t s ,
t h e f a c t o r s t h a t
d e f i n e
t h e m ,
v a r i a -
t i o n s
f o u n d
i n e x t a n t
m a t s ,
a n d
t h e s h o r t -
t e r m
a n d
l o n g - t e r m
s i g n i f i c a n c e
o f
m a t c o m -
m u n i t i e s .
F o r
e x a m p l e , c o m p a r i s o n
o f m a t
c o m m u n i t i e s w i t h
o t h e r
l a y e r e d
m i c r o b i a l
c o m m u n i t i e s ,
s u c h a s
t h o s e
f o u n d i n
f j o r d s ,
m a r i n e a n d
f r e s h w a t e r
s e d i m e n t s ,
a n d s t r a t i -
f i e d l a k e s
w o u l d h a v e
b e e n
w e l c o m e . T h e
b o o k
w i l l ,
e v e n
s o ,
b e
a
v a l u a b l e
a d d i t i o n
t o
t h e l i b r a r i e s o f m i c r o b i a l
e c o l o g i s t s
a n d o t h -
e r s
i n t e r e s t e d
i n
o r g a n i s m a l
i n t e r a c t i o n s , t h e
e v o l u t i o n o f m i c r o b i a l
c o m m u n i t i e s ,
a n d
b i o g e o c h e m i s t r y .
I t
s h o u ld b e a v a l u a b l e
t e a c h i n g
a i d
a t t h e
g r a d u a t e
l e v e l a n d
w i l l
p r o v i d e t h o u g h t - p r o v o k i n g
a n d
i n f o r m a t i v e
m a t e r i a l
f o r y e a r s
t o
c o m e .
KENNETH
H .
NEALSON
C e n t e r f o r
G r e a t
L a k e s
S t u d i e s ,
U n f i v e r s i t y
o f W i s c o n s i n ,
M i l w a u k e e , WI
5 3 2 0 1
T o p i c s i n
A s t r o p h y s i c s
A s t r o p h y s i c s
o f
G a s e o u s
N e b u l a e
a n d A c -
t i v e G a l a c t i c
N u c l e i . DONALD E . O S T E R B R O C K .
U n i v c r s i t v
S c i e n c e B o o k s ,
M i l l
V a l l e y ,
C A , 1 9 8 8 .
x v i i i ,
4 0 8
p p . ,
i l l u s .
3 6 .
I n
1 8 6 4
W i l l i a m H u g g i n s
a i m e d
h i s
s p e c -
t r o s c o p e
a t
n e b u l a e
a n d
d i s c o v e r e d
t h a t
s o m e
s h o w e d
e m i s s i o n l i n e s ( h e n c e
g a s -
e o u s
n e b u l a e ) , w h e r e a s o t h e r s s h o w e d
s t a r -
l i k e
s p e c t r a . I n 1 9 7 4 , w h e n a p p e a r e d
O s t e r -
b r o c k ' s
now c l a s s i c t e x t b o o k o n
t h e o p t i c a l
s p e c t r o s c o p y
o f
p h o t o i o n i z e d g a s , A s t r o p h y s -
i c s
o f
G a s e o u i s
N e b u l a e , i t s
s u b j e c t s t i l l
d o m i -
n a t e d
t h e
f i e l d s i m p l i e d b y
t h e
t i t l e . L i k e
m a n y
o f
m y
c o n t e m p o r a r i e s ,
I l e a r n e d
t h e
p h y s i c s
o f
p h o t o i o n i z e d
g a s
f r o m t h e
1 9 7 4
b o o k .
My
o p i n i o n s o n
t h i s
r e v i s e d
v e r s i o n
t h u s
r e f l e c t
g r a t i t u d e
t o a r e f e r e n c e t a t t e r e d
b y a d e c a d e
o f
u s e ,
c o m p r o m i s e d
b v
a n
u n d e r g r a d u a t e ' s
d e s i r e f o r
r e v e n g e
o n
a n
o p a q u e
t e x t b o o k .
A s
a n i n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e
p h y s i c s
o f
p h o -
t o i o n i z a t i o n ,
l i n e t r a n s f e r ,
a n d
o p t i c a l
d i a g -
n o s i s o f d i f f u s e
a t o m i c
g a s ,
i t
r e m a i n s w i t h -
o u t
p e e r s .
T h e f i r s t n i n e
c h a p t e r s
a r e
l a r g e l v
u n c h a n g e d .
T h e d i s c u s s i o n
o f
c h a r g e - e x -
c h a n g e r e a c t i o n s
h a s b e e n
u p d a t e d ,
a n d
i t
i s
now
p u b l i c l y
c o n f e s s e d
t h a t
H I I
r e g i o n s
m a y
n o t b e
h o m o g e n e o u s , s p h e r i c a l ,
o r
s i m i l a r t t h e s u n i n a b u n d a n c e s o f e l e m e n t s .
R e f e r e n c e s t o
t h e
r e c e n t l i t e r a t u r e
a r e
g i v e n ,
a n d t h e t a b l e s
i n c o r p o r a t e
m o d e r n d a t a . An
i n f u r i a t i n g
n u m b e r o f
m i s p r i n t s
i n f e s t e d t h e
f i r s t
e d i t i o n ; m a n y
b u t
b y
n o
m e a n s a l l
o f
t h e s e
h a v e
b e e n
c o r r e c t e d .
T h r e e new
c h a p -
t e r s h a v e b e e n
a d d e d .
On e d e s c r i b e s t h e
o p t i c a l
l i n e
e m i s s i o n
f r o m
n o v a
a n d
s u p e r -
n o v a
s h e l l s ,
a n d t w o
b r i e f l y
r e v i e w
d i a g n o s -
t i c s
a n d
c l a s s i f i c a t i o n
o f
t h e
e m i s s i o n - l i n e
r e g i o n s
o f
a c t i v e
g a l a c t i c
n u c l e i . T h e r e a d e r
i s i n t r o d u c e d t o
S e y f e r t s
1 . 8 a n d
1 . 9
b u t i s
s p a r e d
f u r t h e r
s i g n i f i c a n t
f i g u r e s .
T h e
s u b j e c t
m a t t e r i s f u n d a m e n t a l t o
a l l
o f
a s t r o p h y s i c s ,
a n d
b e i n g
w i t h o u t
s e r i o u s
c o m p e t i t i o n
t h i s
b o o k w i l l
a p p e a r
o n
t h e
d e s k s
o f
a s t r o n o m e r s
a t
a l l
s t a g e s
o f
t h e i r
BOOK
REVIEWS
1 0 9 5J U N E 1 9 8 9
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