Chomsky's Universal Grammar

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1Te Nue of UniveslGmm

wg -S r P npe id lag- iv ue ft-Pp

h am o ths book to ony why Choky' th o languag tmulatng and advntus d why t h mpott onqueo a thoe workng wth anguag. Th goa o th th ae tod anguag a a pprty o th huan mnd and to xpnhow t aqud.o ahve th goa, t tbh an appatus o codabe complexy Though p popsa put owad ae not ly ot, h thoy provd a und amwok whn whh thy may b ttd

h book ntndd y a an nodton o ho who wantto hav a boad oveew o th th wth unt dtal to show t man onpt wo ath th o tho who ar pat tdn o yntax, whom tha ntodo uh a Hege(1994) and Ohaa 994 a mor apppat No do t ovChomy tca vw, an aont o whh an b ound n Skie(990)

h nta onpt Une Gmar (U): ytm oncp ondton and s that a mn o p o ahuman anguag ..the 1 huan lguag' omy 976p 29AU hman ng sha pat o th nowdg o languag;



2 mk' ersal Gmmr

UG s thei ommon poion gardle of whh anguge they sak. Whe wthin th adtion of Chomky' thinking i the195s, the en tho couhes UG in tem of the spec po- posl advancd n Chomky w ing of h 198 and 0. Thi ws t kown Govment/Bindng (B) theo er Lcro Goverm n Big (Chomky 1981; t wa developd u-

er in publions su a Kowege of gge (Chomky 198a) d Biers (Chomky 19B6b) e princp and pa r o ha howeve become

me popu ar in cent ya i onvey s the uqu ntra am of the tho that anguage knowedg nsists of pnps uvr to al languge and pramt tha vy fom one anguage to nother his term wll ere b usd here, with om modif- n n haper 9 Th combnton of Univa Gamma with pin pls and paramet tho nviably d o a compex overll theoy involvig verl ubthoe bu a the ame ime i reatea nw simpciy: owledge o nguage come down to vaaon a mall num of propes

UG i o o kwldg no of behViou its on wih th neal uctu of the hmn md The natu of th ow-

ldg is neparbe fom he poblem o how i i quid popo for ne o guag knowldg nsst an explnation of how owedge to ng UG hory hod tha h speake w of pnpl h apply anguages nd parameter tt va w ith ay dend lims m one gage o aohe.uing guge me g how the pnple apply to a par nguage nd whh vlu s apprpt or eh pr- meer h pnpe or paramter of angg tat i popd s a subsantiv laim abou th md of the pake and abou the naue o lnag cquiiton UG thry s no mang vague or unvef· abl suggeins bou pp of the mnd but pr amntbad on evidenc general oncp of th heo a inxcby nned with the p deils; the impon o UG thy t mp to ntt grammar mnd d nguge at evey

momenThe of lingus ofn ummazd by Chomsky in h fo o h queso, fo examp in Chomsky (1a)

cott Ieg< of gge? h linguss pme duy ist dbe wht pp abo lagge whver t th hey hve h mnd wen y k Engl or Fn o y aguage or, we s lr mo ply

re of ers Gmma 3

2 ow s u nowge que? A ond m i dve h people cqie thi �owledge Stdying aquisin of lag; kno led means rs esblshig wa th kOldg is cquI d ctualy onsit of i. n aswrng qus

How s wge ut to ue? A third im o how pe

us tis acqird lnguge knowlge Agi invesgag know dge i used dpends on s blhig wh now dge I.

S o m t i m e s o u r t h q u s t io n i a d d e d i n C m s k y (1 p . 3 � 4 W t r e h e p h ysic ol m ec hnis m ht"r l th e m ea " f th y te m o fk �ow ed g e an d r th e u hi s k l ge? T m t o m e � h y c o r re la

t o s m t l n o w l g e i o w o s o m e n b n m d d b r a i n o g r under s tnding o t e p hy c a l b a S fo r m m is n w ad v a n c n g r xa m p l R ( 9 9 2J' C h o m k y ( 9 8 8 , �. 6 ) a l s q u e s o n l v y n e w o n e n f a o n e h a I U o n t h r z o n . t w n o n t h b o o k

n or. ventons folowed hs bk ned bfy stag

s ul g boo n nda ungraant xamp senens d phr num for ffen, Ie

Th Joh e rly md.

muh of th dison s b ed aound Englh nven th UG th g ts pwr by beng ppld to mny ln gs ndd, sinc the arly 19 h a v pronn th lguag udied in prr t Rma lguag andapan, . wh? wll be draw on whn posible. Howvr, ud h s book exmples of palr ya u r hn ly ng d on omplet anlys languag

que . A qk rnc ls of pp d pm ond he k i provided o n pg 349.

ccy

o give an mmdit de UG lk t sp r of Ic-depnde. Sn a l Chomsky () thi n



4 Chk' UnGr

t troduce the dea of pncp; ate haptes twiD bm de mo compex d 5tcepeden th wdge of aguage ei o th sctal eaon hp th tc ahe tha o the squnc of wod o under

nd i w d to tablh the npt of pr tuew wch th a atiohi take pace mj mpin in lgit snc the 9 h b that se

t o phr - cu gouping of wods: setncesh p. u hus the t.c 5

2 chid drew a elphat.

ba up into a Nou (N h hd and a Vrb Ph a (VP an elephAnt; eVP In tu ba up to a Vb (V dw and arNo an hnt

3. Senten

No Ph Veb Phashe cild

V erb Noun Phr .

dr phn

pha ao bk up to smar content theP h hildt of a D... (D. o D) h d a oun () ild whletNP pht coit of a Deti an ad aNou han.

4 Setn

Nou Phase Veb Phas

Dtin

Ihe

Noun Ver b Noun Phrase

cIld drL � Dtee ou

I n han

t[

N f nr/ aR 5

The pa'stcte anaysi of the senc'beas t up to maand smaller otent. sente is ot jut a stng o words in aear squ but s sed nto ase, all of which onettogeth to mke up the whole.

ae str an be psntd n vral ways. One fo ofprntao tht wll frequty ud her is the dga we hav jut ths lays ot the c of the sntnc n agaphic way simar to famiy . latiely, phr smayb epresnted by pttg pa of que backets around achoset (Iabell.d bak.nS) a n

5 The child] [ drw an ephantJ

rpsnts the same aalyis s the t less mbesome orsme purpos tha tre diagam ad wllb ue from me to tmhe

Oe o Chomskys t nuenHa inovao n lingusti w ad fo of eprentaio called a w e (omy 1957),

sen n5�PVPVVP

n this the rwte arow c b taken to mea consi o.The le me exaty th ame the t o a the baceted foof he setne, namey that the ntece (5 coit of a NounPhra () ad aVerb Pha (VP) and the onits o aV adanP. On mo ti orm o eptao no way change teanaysi t s es often used today, for eao we shall lte ithi hapte

h pincipe of tucturedepndecy a now be itroducedthough . t elatioshp of active ad pasive setc n Egl

Th tadoa ay of the paive ud angage ehn eamp Bwitz (987 p. 93) pasive ntnce a odrom atve entec by movg vaos element of the sencaroud The pasie tene

6 Baes wa red by th maag

s taen to be ated to the acve tec

7 Th manager rd Bae.



6 Comsk' ves Gmmr

hough movemnt of vaous lemn The obect Brs n h ctvetnc movs o b he ub of the pasv he cive subje te mge mov after he Veb in h passve d gin a ptonb (thus oming a Ppl Pe (PP»; nd the Vrb changom he acive o ed o he psive o

wrd he psive

uxly b i as nd

The mngr rd Bae.

>B wa d by h agr

The pnple and paramee anlys propr o pa'vs o bedevelod n haptr 6, bes i trdon1 cco unt in de�ibng spec of he passve in ms of movmn Rttngthe don to the movment of the subjc the nlys e Breas movng fom n underyng obect pion th V after he Vrbe to a b poo at he bginnng of he ne

·

:" r Bae

v r od b movemnt o h objec o ube pition -and c by oher faos we ha not go into for th momn

But wht ully movd? On po blty ht t i the wordht occurs n a particuar plc in h sentnc ay he fourthword

8

r '-_ _--•_ The mnger rd Be

2 3

Bu would not work fo oth pve ntenes For ampl t ona hro udy me in e nten

9, On Tuedy the mnagr d Ba. 2 3 4 6

mog the word (d hging he Verb fo) yelds a nons pve:

10, Mngr on Tuday h ws d Be.

Te tue of vesl Grmm 7

ngish pass s do not dpnd on ovg he fourth word or thth word r dd any word n plar numbed pc in thesnce o he nence. e l hat ses how o mk paives snot JU� � mHer of cog words n a li equenc

Nor IS t crat to say tht what moved is a d L u expnd

h acv ntnce sghty to get

Th mnger ed he plyer

ovg a singword (nd auming he oher eevnt changs wll

not Yld pav entne whthe movng he Dteer:

wa rd pyer by he mng

or h oun

1. ay ws rd he by th ngr.

t

ot the word hat mov but the "; foing pve meovg the obec Nou hse to he begnnng of the ncwtr the phr Cns sngle wod uch a B, or word suh as e yer, or 8 mny wods a you lke as in say

1 !e plyr who.

on plyed for England nd u t par

coals r oft drks ws rd by the mnger,

W

now need to tak n other typ of Engsh sntn Tak queon lke

Will the mngr r Bes

Th can b n a devd by movment f noth st ,e

: .. . _ --"'

.The mngr wi fe Baes

t i not mply th thd word that move othe

On Tusday the mnger Ba,

would bome



'7

•

8 h m' U l Gamm

1. e uday mag will r Bs

But it is s not ough o ecfy t kind of word o� phra hmovs whehe th auxa o mthng e. L us lluae hby ombnig queHo with relaive clauses. h entece:

8 gr who wi B will uccd

gv u hoie of o uxiias wl But ony o of the canmove get a qeon. Evey Englih spaker kow ht he coron

9 Will h mge who will Bs uccd?

20 WiII the mg who r Ba will succd?

T o y a uil t c a n b movd s h wil n h e man c a us

li m an ag e w/ suc d not h e on h rv e ca u e w ho w fre ,

t i8 to y th xliry w l rng in parc ula r pla h e

s ure of th e nc.

T nt uc s h e ma jor spc of h e prnc iple of truc tu e-

d d ey: mov em ent in th e s t en I not ut ma e o r g

g h d n of moving h em a round bu of movng h e

g e m ent th e g p mov em t d ep nd� on th e ure

of T he wl whih mov is h e on e d c ly Whn th

m n l ot e on e wih th e lve ; i pla ys a a rti

l l e se of th e n e mov em nt involv d In th

on of Egish qu ons is th e entra l exmp e of scur-

d e d eny ed Chomky's wring. Chomky , o xa mp nts

2 the who i8 he l?

"s the who hr s ll?

evide fo th lam tha the les of languag do not c onsidesime li ode but ae trucrdendent (Cmsy, 1p4).

T Nau of Ural Gamma 9

Similar n

The mage Baes.

it is he ob NP within the VP tha moves o get he sve

Baes w d by th mnagr.

we e b h mpossibilit of mng he pave:

·Prsdent was eed John

out of the active

ey etd Joh Prsidn

b chOOing anothe o mo tad o h direct objct a in

7. John was leed Prsidn

In ordr o know whic h el em nt o th e s ennc e to mov on e ha o now i

�d yg stc . T h e emnt ht c b �ov ed o sUb J son th p iv is h e oc t N rom h VP n it enr; wha my b mov d n th qu e on is th e auxl y v eb rom h ma c la u VP O nly th e a e knows h e c tu ofth e ent nc c a n h e ight a o th e n e b mov ed. Engl hp' e n enc e d qu ons c not o d without k wg ehng a bou pa stc e. Simp e c ng of th e r s n, onh word ds no wor t th s tha ma e

r I

oth er wods th s or Eng h pa iv e nd quons a re u-d pnd ent , not bs on h e ina ord e of lm en Sc ure-dpndncy a ls a f es h era tion o s tnc es. T he e

8 John as hat th mag w r him

English pe nows that hm ca rf o th same peon as - th mager ing oh cao re to he mngeBu in he snnce

9 John a h he maagr wi hme



0 Chk' Una Gaar

nt speae s eqully su e hat h ex hmse l f ef e o he

magr odd as he mnng may b Th nowedge th ac c �uns

f r ths is gly omp , as w sha e n cp"r 2. But smply

t th ve hm l fmust r er to mon mntoed wthn t

of e nt I h m an g w l r him l h p onon hm

o t oth hnd must r to someone who is no mtion d n te me p of te s n b u who my itr m on d I he

�r lau o hn s h a .. or my not b m noed di tly a t

(e it mg r r om b ody lady est b l om c o t

s as B). n r wo d in p who hm d hm e l f r f er

d ds on ou owledge o h ue sttur o the t ne

_ owg wi s Ih vnt pa of Ihe c lau ad wh h is no

th le is cr -d pd n .

Sn sur p dec y ems t apply to ver a ypes of e ,

t g e on b dva ta Engish lf IS a str ·

d dnt language: e pple of st ud nden y ppe . IO

aU Ie tys of sr f ound in Eglih. Ay speaker of Engh

kw slr -depnd nc y. But same m to appy 10 oher ngage Eqvn en-

ns G a dmonsr t t uu d nde n Ihe pa sive ntenc

Hans wurd von Mae ghen(Han wa by Ma n)Hn w by May

it is th o b je t NP H an that moves e su b ec position , n h /h

word or ay other um d wor d or y ohr N t mgh b n

e e the Gmn p sve l ar sc dpdnt h

quston

3 Wurd Hn v Ma gesehen7(ws Han by May sn?)

Wa Hans n by Ma

aux wurde has mov om th V b hr se 10 p ed Ih

u b j c Gea qu son s r tc -depedn h F nh

tnc

32 e d que regard ns ah

g�c)(r ay t Jn f lk t n . t e or

er Joh oo at imlf n e r

Nau Un G 1

he itrpetaon t s s o an no to dd o nowlge ht n g dan / ga s • m Not yEnglis but so Fech nd Ga hv std

Or dd Grk n paiv:

0gat ddke Agik on P

(h dtor was tugh Engl by tr) dor w tug Egh b P

wh ga h vd m at i t t Squestions " Chomsky 19 p 2)

34. Eel homb que e ' ntnto ?(Is he m, wo I hppy at m)Is h m wo hpp a home?

whe (is) hs movd om V no lvaus Or Aabi

35. qla Amd yd qa u(sd Amed tha Zd klUd Ahm sid Zd lled imelf.

w t pronoun na[ahu mut o the me Ztin t sam au. Non of lag or terpatio to rely on lir order of ord a owldge of te nten c. W deb psvqutio nd rxiv Eis Frc G t is o ns t sat at i sd t grlizo c mde t t o lagug stucrdepndnt.f our li y his ater evd from other lges may tU u t i

wg.

tue-dpedn a hrefo be p fod a lpple of languag wner leme o t a mo fo passives qusio, or whevr su movnt acount h stu rlaops f te rt linear ordr of word; ll own foal or i mof English, of ny o lagu, su-dd (sy 1 p 3 An mpot inight to t t of agg will be md if sruu-dp dn i aatue o a paar nguge. Id it m t •



•

12 C hm" Ulti".a' G,ama

of t dep nden y usd n a l lang uag es Any han ing

w w ny g ag e h oe in cld. the pin cpl o st cr

d p de wihin t eir kn owledg e of lng uag

Why od hi h ce? As hua ing it s es pty

vi o t o s that thi what lang uag is lik h o c old t b :1y ot wy? But th i. n o l og i ca n c ity for a g uag o b

" c-depede t C omput . nd n o pla p oblem in deal

.g wit st e dent m ov mnt o instane, by ves

g t o de of h ntn ce o g et a qeti on s o ha y 12 3 or de

bm 32 or d r T ne

John i ta 2 3

d ome:3 l oh?

3 2 1

Yet n m lg uag e w o. le ths; t . n e e n a od

o t ng d bt e od of s ual lm nts St ce

d de y i a d v y ab o he natu o human lang uag e i

p y o hum lng uag n g n r al a pr npe o Unesa

G ram r.

T i t t of lng ag e owldg e a n o th ose tht ar

o o i divid ng uag e a e but h that ae of a ll

g t o h ow the int l st ctu o t ind t e g ma

mut rf p p e of ll mind, ather han jt th o that hpp n

to w Eg l or F h omky h alwy sen initic as

de b y mai g de p c c u of hm ln ag in g en r al

her a c c u of pa ti cua ug s R ea p g r s n l g ui

i i t e d c v that tain fur e of g en l ag s

ru c to univeal pr or ies o lang uag e nd xpained in of d pe a c of ling uis c o' ( Ch osky 1% 5 ,

p 3) Dve pn om na in Eng ih an b r d ced t o a .ing e p in

p of t ctr d pedn; siir ph ona in oth ng uag es

c l d o t ame pr pe May other pnpls, and h n

of d, cn b di c oe d by he p ss

. Wy d p ple o cr n all lang s d why h old

we d it 8 obvious? It i. nlily tht p opl er n ouner u.

t t ntr vee e-dep nden cy otsid th pag of l n ui

b ; h ow d o t ey i tantly n ow hat

T Universl Gama 13

3 on s h an who a wong �hldn lang English pobaby n ha a

n. o h yp; how do hey la stu-depndn

7n n

oy of anguage aqUSon hs o xplan how hlden y -�omutaonly ople sue-dpendn les r:'a.

tionally Sple es that inov only th pedcae "Itsn a a eqn of wods (Chosky, pp Th G:� / h ! r panefhntY hpOib o ln, 0 e uma n

he Head areer

uurdepnd y obvously differ n

nma:�"a i

an�g5. Yt languagesoly o ' g 0 anguage coisdieal T

nmg ppes all human lgags wod b dento 0 e ow th hoy apues ariaton ben Il us a e eampe of e had pam, whh s



- the phss the lngug hv hds o h . Then i pulaeda pmeter tht gge hae hed coniently eihe to thet t the ight f cmmn. Unlke t niCT nc rte-depee the he pamete admt imid ng teatve: 'hedit o 'het' Aogde the unva ig p npl that ppy to agge, G nc 'paamete ofio; lgage et ixe' the pmete codi to himte hoe abe Egh et the head pamete i patic w the hed f ph ome o the eft to aqre Jpane ,iee nedd tht the ome he �h h ccun hehd m mlifie cmlx u'; lnav appoche the (e ith the ph e diud n m dil nhpte 4 In pt i hld b oted h thee e me exc·n to the oto tht a phes have he ame head ettg i p u lnguage , ntably th (< p

Pjc

A� WEll the nttic prinple dicued , pnl adpaamee theo emphsze h wd the nguage , tht to

Th Natu Unvsl Gm

a, he licl im th ma )on pee ko ht thwd in hi nguge m d ho the o h whow he m ud n enence e hery i t na·tic deipon f the enence wih h ppei of item ithe Pojection Prncipl, which eqi h nx commodaethe haatit of eah ea item. It h en ecognizedthat thee ae on n whch wd a cur in hh o·

t

o

n

F nt

nce, ome Veb ae fooed

b

jct

Nu

Ph e:

Hn pe Scc hi

u no:

4f "He eer

Othe Veb a ot lwed NP inan

find

ot

5 "t ft he ca

he linguic eciptin ex hi thoug h lxial ntrytht each item ha the eo e eia ety fo eh Veb ithe ditioa h to h hethe r ot i i llwd bn NP, i whee it tite tate he cnx o heVeb hee given i qae baet th a undrined gap h lain h im ie hi i o a subcatgrzatonfm h n:

' Vr , - N

(her mn t t Ve pe e ut b ood b a P Apiar Veb h i Own cmiau n o poiili e Vebw f eampl, a b fuoe b an ec N:

51. wn sm moe.

o b phae ttig wih h:



18 Chos's Univeal Grmr

52. I wnt to leave

b may no be foowed by phras sating wh lia :

5. °1 want hat Bll leave.

Uke, for itance beeve:

I leve at Bi lef

Hee he ent fo want s somehng e:

wan Verb, _ NP ·phrase

and t enr for be.

beleve Veb [ NPI phrae

where he slash' /' shows eher or. The pprte o eah exial

em Ihe language ae recorded in is exal eny The spek's

k oIedge o the curece rstto fo a l he words in the ln-uage i inopra�ed n su h entr n her enal lexion pten

ally a vas aount o formaon abou any thouands of wods

The grama of Englsh ontai what appas to be the rher

smla nfoaon ha soe s es ha a Veb P a onSsting

of a Verb and a Noun Phrase, e. are transtive:

55 Jim dnk lager.

whe others have a V whou an NP, ie a inransve

56. Sarah faned

Ths an be ouated as the syntactc rl

V er b hse con o a Vrb and an oponal Noun Phras

Alteavely h a be expressed as the ewriting rule:

VP - V (P)

eanng ha the Vrb Phrase 'onsss 0(' a Verb and n oponalNoun Phra round brake (so nown a5 paenthee) enlose

,

T Natur of Unvea Gm 19

elements hat do no nessay or Bu hs rue ems ju toepea the same infomation gven in he lexca es On heone hnd there a lexca enrie indaig that Ver a asve Por nantve on he oher a le of syntax VP V Nthat mdcates tha VPs may have na NPs.

he ds�ntive am of prnpes nd paraeers theoy ha

uh duplaon unnessary. If here a verbs wh entres ucs

lke Verb, [ NP]

ther s no nd fo a le at e VP include NPs au th saken a of by he lexca en ollows from he en or iI at mu be followed by an NP a th nce n whch t has noollowg NP ae exluded as in

57 "Sa lkes.

his normation nd not be stated again in he yna. The excaenty i sad to ' projec onto the syntax he lexcal ficaon o

the word ure ha he yntax ha a pariuar for. h uedp n a enal prinple own as h Projc npe:

Te ppes � exic ene project onto te yntx of hesennce.

Much o the inomatn th oud b expessd a yntacc ndled s proetions fro lexcal eries Ru such as

VPV(NP)

prode redundat orma se the elemt NP i n lonroptonal but predctable rom he behavior o puar leca ke cn have n NP anno. In oher word _e s o n t saytha ntens ay be an se or ntranstve f e na ava-be evey Verb peies wheher t an hae a foowng NP oo. The exonis no a sepaate su, a list of words and eann;t pays a dynamc and nee par in h yntax. e Wgef how he Verb I have s eparble ro the koe osynax Consequnty many aspec of ngge that e�al w h as sya' are now handl asdoya o xcal,ters; he synta ise s conderaby Smphfed by he omsn ofmany e at the t o gratly ncread eX noraon

•



2 Chmsky' Univeral Grammar

paar empcal sgncnce pehaps none at a (omsy a,p 1.

he -ngage pproach ncludes no ony hes that emphaszethe physcl manestations 01 angage but aso hose hat trea ·gage s a soca phenomenon, 'as a colecon o sysem of aconsor behavos 0 some s' (Chomsky, 986a p 0 e sudy 01 E

angag eate a sntence o the angage hat pded i, hesaon t he moment of speakn nd to t soi latonshpben he speake and he istene I conntraes on sa bevou between ppe raher than on he Mer yhoogca wod.uch work whn the lds of olngst, o diuse

analis,

cm wthn an -nuage approch n hat t cnces soa tH r

than mena phomenaThe ootion beween ths two appoach in lingcs ha s ben

long and acmoio neiher side ncedes the othe eaity has afected he othe dicies lated to lingus. he sdy 1

anage acqustion divded bewn ho who look at etelntracion and ommuncave funcion and hose who look o nena e nd pnpes; computata ngust ughy dvde noh who analy lag sttches 01 text ad the who wite le Einuit colects mpes of aca speech or acual behaviou;evidence concrte phycal msaton A -nust invents posble nd mpossbe ntens evidence whther speakes know l

they ae grammca The Einguist despss the Ilingus or nolkng t eal a he I-lngi dedes the -lingust o ookingat tv The gage vesu -anuage disncion s much adfnce 0 rsech methods nd of admsbe evdence a t s 0

loterm goaTe dsincon we comptnce and poan, st dawn

in Chomsky (165) pay cspnds o the - vesus Eanagesplit. Competenc i he speke/heaes knowedge 0 his ange pefo mance 'he acal use of langug n ncte siuatonsomsky, 965, p. 4). Si t was fist prp thi distnction hsb

he subject of ontrvey between th who see t as a nessa dealiaton for lngss and hose who beleve t abandons hectral daa o ustc Let u sa wth a deiton o compeene:By grammaa competnce mean he ogve state tha encompses a those ape o fo and meang and the laton nudng undeyg stctu that ente no that eao whch aeory asiged o the scc subysm 1 he human mnd thateate epsentaon of o nd meanng' Chomsky, 1980a, p. 9)e gramma of mpeence dec b I-language in he mnd, dstnc

I

�,

TIle Nate of niva aa 2

om he use of langage which dpend un he conet of saon, he nenons of he paicpants and othe facto. Cmte�is ndenden o uaon. p

eents wat the spaker kow ne abract ust s pople may kow he Hhwy Code or he of athmetc ndendeny of whether they can dive a c o ad up

acolum of gues. us t s p the men of a a

o Englsh that les mus be stcuredndent, th heads mes n phs nd ha the Verb {int cMOt have a obet 1e

pton 01 ngusc omptence the vde the wer tueston of wha contts owleg of . a.

homsky' noon of omtnce ha metm ben ttk ang to dearwih how lanage I ud and c f mmunictve compeence has been poposed to emedy th ackHyme 97) he rren mode do no dy that a th y of u

omplements a heo of knowlede Ia gui hpto be moe ineested in he theor 0wht pe kw t a ta esabihng knowedge tf logcaly prce sdyng how lea<qu" and use tha knowledge homky acpts that g usd purposefully ndd n aer win he noduce

pragmi omptn -

owldge1

how aa i t

esaon n which s used Pram cc p ain he nsttuonal seng of ts u elang no and pr0 the ngsc mea at hand Chky 19, p. 2). w aknowng the stcu o nage, we have to know how u tee itte poin n owing he tc" of

58 Can you lif hat box

you can't decde whethe he spar wan dve how tgyou ae a queson) o wans yu o move the (a rut

I my be possible to have g amma cmec i�t prg-matic mpeence A schlboy n T Shar novel Vnag Sluf .

(Shape, 982) akes evetng hat ad tl he t

u ovr a new lea he dig up he headmte camea But k -

ledge of language us i deet frm kowledg of lg! tefpagmatic competenc s not lnst compence dofgammatica ompeence expains how the per k tht

59. Why ae you mang such a o

s a pibe nence of ngsh and ht

6. Why you are making such a no?•



26 o

Howeve, seond u of the em 'pefomnce should otednamely that whih ontsts lnguge nowledge with te psychologicl pocesses though whh the speake undestnds o poduceslguge. Knowng the ghwy Code s not th sme s being bleto drive ong steet whle the Coe n sense noms evthngth dve dos, dvng volves pala set o pocesse nd

ks tht e ndctly led knowledge of the Code. ngugepefonn has a simir ltionhp to comnce Spekes hveto us vaety of psyoogicl and phsicl p n actullysakng or understdg that r not p grammatcal omenc, even f thy have some link to t memory capacity fectsthe length of sentn that cn b uted but s nothng to do wthknowedg o ngag sl Smpes o lngug my lude mnypomen aus by these ponc pos; speks producidntl spoonesms - you ; y ltu ndhito ad such as e nd you ko th gt distcted ndu ngammaca ntencs they lo trck nd stt e entn al ovr agan. One son o the Ilnguist's doubts bt usngamples of gag s evdenc s that they et many othe psychologcl poeses hat obs the spekes tul knowldge o

the lngge

y Uv

n pncip that is not found n l lngug stl clld unvsal nd rated to UG The concpt of meet plys nimoant ole n the theo and s empoyd to descbe a numbeo constctios angng om passves to questons, as we hvelady sn. But som� languages do not ppea to mov elmntso the synttc stucu o th sntence ound In Jpnese, foxampe th sttement:

Nwa Wa sko desu

(gren thee isThe gaden is the

dfers om the quson:

9 Nwa Wa doko desu k?(gde her s)hee s e gare?

!

,.I

t

\

•

T u of "1 27

y ddin the element t the end nd havig th quson-word n the plac of o he questioword OM s not move to sta, s must happ n Englsh (ept o eho quesion su asYO w?) panese does not use synti movmt qutons, though it may ned othe ps of movemt, in para Pmovement as w sh s lat

Othe lag also shre ts o ques Bha Me,or exmpe, cn oed by ddng the qusto elemt lt eword tht bing askd bout (Kin 198

ia nk g ke Kuaa umrkah?he s gong to a umpu?)s he gong Kula umpu

wthout movng t ont me langag do not thn uimovement e psnce or bnce o syntct movmnt s a aamter of vaton beeen lnuges; Egls qu moMlay and apnese do not. he tting of this amer ha nof consequencs in the gamm A lanuag w movemt qa ompe tho to ate the mov and uod ; W

n ogl vel t wh the eemnts ar uoved ngglke Japane c dss wth ts pa, gh dpndcy has wdesprad ects o the ag nt hee pmaly a estcon on synta met n Egsh sdndnt n that t e stuns, ot t lnear ode o wods e qun

7 hich vdeo shll we wt?

s basd o movement o the cont c .d, not on mogth cnd D ourth o nth wod Sne apn d ot m static elem i qustons, t dos not d s-de rsyntactc movemnt.

In what ca a uverl tat ds not o in a ra

lnguag b unival? Jaanes do no howe bk a othe qments o syntc movment t ds not n sdepnde fo qeston movemnt a t d not u movIts bsenc om me aspct of gven angu do no p t snot unv Th drf would be langag at had sytmovemet that ws t studedt. Pd tt the uvesl s found some huma anguag t d ot ha t btn a anguages. G does n st a agge a he sam



2 Cmsk' Univeral Gamma

vaation oduced hough prmees alows unvels o be allbut ndeeable i palr languages. does o however allowthem to be broken

hs can conrasted wih a longsadig approach o uesasn whch the gui atemp o dscover a polog of he langagesof te word by seeing what hey have n common; hs leads owha are vaously ca�d 'implicatioa, 'sasl, o Gnbergan

vea. exape the Aessibily Herahy (Ka ndCom, 19) Al lguag have rlave lauses i whch he sbjc of he rave caue is elated o the No as the English

Aexnder Fem g was the m who dcoveed lln

A fw langages do no pmit rave caus whch he objeci e elave ause elaes o the Noun o example the ngsh

is the house hat Jack built

woud no ed in Maagasy. Sil moe lagages do noalow te ne obe fom he elave clause o rete o heNn he English ennce

7. Jon as e m they gave e pie to

woud impssible in Weh, for itanc urhe lgage cnohave elave caus tha eae o the Noun via a preposto, a n

75 They sopped he ca from whch he umber pate wasmiig.

or va a ve e Engsh ntn:

76. He's the ma whe pite was n e papers.

would no b psible Bque Unike my lagages, nglish

even nts, though wih some relucane he relave cau orlate va obe of compaon as n

The bdng hat C Wharf is aer s S Pauls.

O, to take a example om a novel:

7. o Holds aoya e other ing tha he was no moreof an Sneezy was sng

Natur< of a amm 29

he Acessblty eahy s epen n es of a r ofosios for elaizao

Subect > Obect > Indiec Obe > Obje of Prep >Gev > Objet o Compaiso.

Al agages star a he lef of he herarchy and have sue rlatve

lauses; some go one step along and have ob lau we; otgo fuher alon! d have idiect obje; some go l he way andhave ever ye cludig obs of compan It aimed at nolagage ca avod hs que a lgage may no have ay sutreaive laues and obect of Pposon relave la b outhe nerveng obe d indirec obec lau Te AccsbHieachy was esablshed by obrvao baedomay nait is a impliaona nivel There s as e no omg awithin UG eory why his should be the c, no para pncipeo parameer volve t s mply he way angage out to mplicational unveals such as the Aeibi Hieracy ar data-dven hey aise ou of oseaio a sngle anga that was anexepon ould be heir dowal y one a had objec of Pre-

ion relative caues bu no ob eave cau Unvea UG ar heodrven hey may not be braced bu tey nd not pen hee may ind a UG explaon for a parilr datadven uversl such as the Ability Hierarcy ths woud stnot vat e distncon twn he eordrvn UG ty of unveal and the daadven implicaonal nve

i is ot necssa o show a a uvel r i don oflnguages. G eac ofen stars from a propey of a snge gage, such as stcedendncy h the pnpe ad to e lgage fay itef rate exre ofleang a para langage it can be aed to unive evidenc rom on angag aone 'I have not eiated o prop ageerl ppe of ingis s on the bass of obaon oa sngle langage' omsky 19b p wons hory of avy may have tgged by an apple bu it did not rui exa-inaon of al the other apples in he wod to pove it of theory of UG ae dsprovabe a pncple may be atributed o UGha rerrch wl show is pecular o Chne or Enghomorrow somne may dover a langage tha beah stdepdcy The pupose of any senic heory it a ca shown o be wong 'in ence you an aua eden thatmakes cer hypoheses sm asonable and that is a y can



2 Iy ma

Light, 192); he langage organ s phycaly pren amongo ma oga ad should be decbed n bioogal as ell asolgical s even if is pr physcal la and fom are t wn. The aemen of a gramma ae aemen o th

o mind au h lnage, hence atens abou he stc o t bain olatd at a ra leel of abrBcon from' Chomky, 98, p 3) The pples of UG hould lab phcal aes of the bra; the brain ene ne orh fo phical nepar for he mental atraton o UG d o sae o h langage fat should ormulae xplied b t h he bran (Chomky 986a, p 3 t mg aount o he re UG a decsonn t mab mde the basis of which is bet wth h o bin mhs.

lg a s nd wih an arbte tha all peoRle Al hn ein hae hea all hman bengs hve n� t ma b damagd n an cden h nose may be afecte by; ima ban Injy maypeent ome fom peakng

ndon ma ca omn to ls me acto age dg t In all the c a nomal hman ing r by deton. Ultimately lingit no nter i wdg of Frh o of abic o of Englih but n he fl th hn pies irlean hat som nes

j g om me hooked m reled ome s; th ena fact is ht noa humn bengs A m o han ig ncud te ppl hat t dpndent ad that head a on a ain de t a p o th cmmon UG t i ot releant UGt t h h a paar e o roes renh anoher � ha ma i wht hey he in common

od h' o hmn ing hv qenly ben used nt dn h lanage faulty ndd held o p

to h p no atue apr fm human ing posses nge on The eidn o ths consi paly o he bi i th ht no p o anmal has spontanly come o useg i h laage hteve a do n capivty, heyt thing like language In the wid (Walma 99)S il di in en yar ha climed ha ap in g taght anguage. Withou ancpangl p, t mht qeiod whehr the lnguage ud n ent ar hmnlie n uizng pncpl h dnden hey may be cmmcaon ytms hat

T N of U,vr Gmmr 3

ue none o he dsnve feaues of humn anguage ma on heother hand be possbe ha hey re lea va oher auie hanngge anmas dpoa n human bng ome aspes ofnuge may be earnabe by some other means than he anguag

uy a ngu may know ha Japane has Verbs on he rght emc noedge u hng any nowedge o apne he anguage facuy imilarly pates of earning ued by he animaor othe purps may be adaped o eang certan st o lanage he danger n this argment h i ould evae the issuho poble to tell proper' angge nowlege ganed va theanguage facul fm mproper angage knolge ganed in someoher ay? rsmably only by reung o he argumnt: if itemboie prnciples of UG and has bn aqured rom nral idne hen i s po; one o the sytem leat by animals emopr n his sne ether cuse hey fal o ec absrat feareso anguage or cae hey ae aically tagh'

e pcespfs of UG neverhels rae dflt usionsbo h could hae asn dung eouton; Pget, o ntane

ms hs mttion patir o the hman sRfc would bo·oga neplcbe' (iage 980 p ) Whil the poession ogae ie ary oners an mmense advanage on user ovroher hy houd stredependen or he head pa-meer oner any bologcal advanage her po ndd onee why human languag are acy dieret t ould emvantgeou f he hole spces spo same language Pesmay ou lack dstane from human langage makes hem em eren he deren beeen apane and nglsh migh mtrva o nave spaer of Maran

Ples d Rle

S far has en suggesed ha e thry ees heavy on henon of he ndivduas knoedge o nples as hey appy tohe anguage paly through varable paamer nerccted wiha nowege o ho he lexia em o anguge d in thynax Knowledge o language d no ois o es as sh uto nderying prniple om which indiidual l ar eed thoncpt o he le onc the dmnan wy o hnkng abot lin·gu knoledg ha no en minimizd. 'What we know i t e sysem n he onvenon ens n a it might ha he



hoky l a

oton of u n ths sn has no ta n lingut thoChomky 1986 p. SI)

Let y th reonng to th Vrb Phrae that h adyben noducd, nmely:

VP V NP)

his stte tht Vb Pha aways contan Vb nd optionaJlyontans Noun Ph. That s to say Engh ha both trnstven wth obes (V + NP) uh as

H bds fox-ti

and intrantv ntnces without objec suh a

8 h h ank

Fitly, th art of t e i dundant that rft how th hadramt t n English The akr now th gneal fct bout

Engli that the hed s on pr side of e ph; thu th no nd fo th le to specy tht V s on the et of (NP) bethi llows om the gnl rnc condy, th lxic itm ofthe angug ae sifid n tm of th osbils of syntticcurn, ardg to th Poon Pnpe. the oona elent NP nd not menond n th the exal ent fo vrb hows whethr it an be food by an NP th nt for pfes that t nnot be llow�d b NP nd so on; ths aseto th e i alo dndant. inaly as uggst alie l hso pi yp wy have a head of that ype it not nesayto ste tt VPs have hed Vb, NP hv hd No and so one th i a gr fct aout langug. The inaton n thVP le i dd eithe to gnal nls o the pote ofxicl nte e rul itsf s no ongr ndd Rule a idioyn

a phnomn t ccont fo pct of one nagsh the Vb in English Pnpe count fo roesof ll le d ll lnags UG i ond wth stablhng snge pincipl tt ppi ll ls in Englih uch a th hadpareter rther thn wih dvig lg numbe of uls rpengt m pee of omon Ths the mo oncpul st ofe

leory: ·e to exled the intrion of pnclsnd lopee ther than xisng n thi on ght One n

J

,\

. 1

h NQtur f Q 35

fout agothms tht ojt tm fom a ho of vlsfo th amets of UG bt it not obvo tht thi i sigcntmov o tht t matt how t don homsky 986 p 151 Rulan l d as b for the cominaon of prncpe voln a rti ont; th VP u nvnnt summ of omx ntrtion btwen the hd aamtr te inple of ed

yp and the ojeton Piniple but i s nothng mo Tis rom e to nc thn a majo devopmnt in omkynthnking the epsion of whIch hv often not ben ppecIby those n syhology nd othe aa who ill ssume omkyntheoy lis havly on u o itat gge i not the system of ls bt a st of spcion for prm in n naint systm of nip of Uvl Gammr () (oky195b . 88

So ule r atfa of the ntaon between hepnple ndth xicon he infonation statd n s shold intpd sgnl ns that afct uls athe thn ppty of n-vidua ls 'The ha been grdual shft of om the sudof l sysm whh hv inringy b gded imrshd . . to th study of ym of pe, hi p p

much mo nt oon in dng the chrr d vrof posibe human lngua' (Chky, 192, p. -. Th not concd ith s yntai oints psve 'lav la or quson, whh simply shohd l rilr ntrao of rInples rmete psi inot lookd at as an independent ntcon ut cplex ofmany n ea of wh wll lso hve effe ele th yntx Th bic mpon of the P8P modl tt lgghv no le at a in anytng like th trdnl nd grmmial onttio (ltiv cus pasive et. xct staxonom ifats' Chomky, 1 p 3).

h elian on npe r l ha conqencs alofo the tepton of th tm ntve mmr t h oited wth th Chomskyan poh in t r apd '-

rativ mans that dtio igoro nd expcit hn espak of th inguist' grmm !a " gneive grr we meonly that it sfntly explic to dtne ho te of thengug n ft hrctz by gmmar (osky 1p. 220). Te hf ntrt btwn tadiil grr stmand th le of gnve grmmr ly not thr cott mh thi xpio gnr le e nd te wmkng mpit dmnds on th redrs knoldge of lnge



3 Chmsk' Unial Gramma

T juticaton for we le yem ws tt they fomaizedgrammr nto a rigoou encloed of deton a e uch a:

5- NP VP

ay ded a enen () as ng of an NP nd a VP Theder t hud or the dton 01 NP

P Dt) N

ny h a Noun Phra (NP) cosst o a dtner (D) and a Nou (N) And $ o ul ths pc 01 huntng fo deonsudd in t dcona whe he maings 01 th eenul excl hv wr ded O01 th amou trap opl. fa w ang bu homky th caed theenevGaf. by ha 989� i o ue he . grave a a ynonym fo prdvr h for explict d foa

p do n lend thev howevr, to the am formalrt as T. va tho of Had-drv.n P Stcu

mmar (HP) (Pod and Sag 994) caim mly tob pa ofgi gra on the ground h ue forma expi fo osm� bu h.nges th gh of the nt Chomsky tho t ca gv; generie 'incud. li 01 the ar do der he bc of the "ovet Bidng fram-wo�s r af si of y commi.nt to th explicitton of or theorca prnpl th gene oflgu ' azdar e a 1985 p 6); i nowothy fo thao odu gratve gmmar (Hoock 987) d.vote t ha i pag o Comkyan .s Inudng GB, whi a uey hpr o gn.ratv. gammar' (Gzdar 198) dmioky i th wo pag Tus, }hough h theoy tl iits

thgm hs b ated expiiy his no ong.r emd n fulon of a ru; he igour come I he pnpe andIn th l to videc.Atgky ate md foalizaon i raly " sl

I lgui (Comy 1987) t tho erthl.ss Iitson c a generave heo to ested by conced u laug •. the we•• of mu ingusic r-s dede on a gl. ur o daa obevaions ofa s - wh may othr our c b found A inc t o ude tn thig In advc he c houd no be pudgd by admig ony eai ds 01 ed.nc 'n pncpl.,

J

I

TireNatue of nvsa amma 37

den ould come fom many dffrnt ource apat fromudgmnts conceg h. fom and meg of expeon p.cptua .pem.nt th tudy of acqo and d. o of patynvented anguag such a Co, or of ay uage or anguagehang nuroogy, bochemit, and o on (Chomky, 1986 pp 36-

7). Som. of th.e dicpns may no a y.t b. n a pOon to giehard evidene; neurology may no be ab o how how anguag sto. phyicaly in the brain in pip. h levat .vd.nc toontrbu d may ind.d do o on day For 19 81 ontts whah. ca th 'Wong Viw tha ngt houd con t o acet of fa wih the 'Rgh Vi.w that any fact aut he uof anguag, and about how it i l coud in pnpl. b. rel"ean to the cho bw.en mpng th' Whn UG tho iaacd for elying on non d oad .n ah.r hnct xmpl of lag u or pyhoguic exen,s answr o go o th offnsve by yng hat n piniple a snif theo houd not pdtmne wh fct t dea th E-

agag appoche a dn n t ng of .id.nc they cofor ompaed to lguage thos

he queon) f dence is somems eprd in trms of psy-chologcal r.aliy' Lagag. owl.dge pat of the pak mnd;hn the dicpine hat udi it pat of pyhology Chomyhas ndd fered to tha brch of human psychology o alngutc Chomky 972a p 8). Agan t is ny to foaltoo teral nttaons of uch mas wte e uch as

5- N V

did not hae any necesa aonhp to the rfomace pby whch f.opl. poduc and comprehend en nce i s olya decp on of laguage owdg•. To boow a dn fomompn h dipion of now.dge s decara In that it cot of saic elaioshp, not 'podual n that d not

st 01 pocdu for acuy pung o comphnding peeche depon of anguage in uch thes may a bt arom up.a mban to spee prces Wih nowgxpd pp and pramee, e mban eem mo ff.ch.d; it is doubfu wh.hr ev m speas wa tpoduce a V thy coidr i some way he intron of the headpaameter, h had uirmen and the lexcal nr of verbsonvenion psychoogcal expmns with syax ll us about howpp. p.rfo ang. tasks bu nothng rty abou knowge

Chomsky's Universal Grammar

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