2015 - Wstęp Do Kulturoznawstwa - Materiały Dla Studentów

7/24/2019 2015 - Wstęp Do Kulturoznawstwa - Materiały Dla Studentów

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Introduction to Cultural Studies

List of topics:

1. The concept of culture

2. Culture change

3. Material culture

4. The body

5. Reproduction

. !a"ily

#. Marriage

$. Magic

%. Religion

1&. 'orld(ie)

1&a 'orld(ie) * +elf

1&b 'orld(ie) * Ti"e

1&c 'orld(ie) , +pace

11. -i"ensions of culture

12. alues of Culture

1. The Concept of Culture

Culture is

/one of the t)o or three "ost co"plicated )ords in the 0nglish language R. 'illia"s 1%# The su" total of no)ledge attitudes and habitual beha(ior patterns shared and trans"itted by the

"e"bers of a particular society. Linton 1%4&

6ll the historically created designs for li(ing e7plicit and i"plicit rational irrational and

nonrational )hich e7ist at any gi(en ti"e as potential guides for the beha(ior of "an. 8luchohn and

8elly 1%45

The "ass of learned and trans"itted "otor reactions habits techni9ues ideas and (alues , and the

beha(ior they induce. 8roeber 1%4$

The "an,"ade part of the en(iron"ent. erso(its 1%55

;that co"ple7 )hole )hich includes no)ledge belief arts "orals la) custo" and any other

capabilities and habits ac9uired by "an as a "e"ber of society< Tylor 1$#1

Culture is 6ll,0nco"passingCulture enco"passes features so"eti"es regarded as tri(ial or un)orthy of serious study such as

=popular= culture. 0(eryone is cultured not >ust people )ith elite education. Thus culture is "uch

"ore than refine"ent taste sophistication education and appreciation of the fine arts

Culture is Learned it is not innate

so"e of the inds of learning )e share )ith other ani"als:

, indi(idual situational learning , an ani"al learns fro" its o)n e7perience eg. a(oiding fire.

, social situational learning , they learn fro" other "e"bers of the social group eg. birds to

fly

, cultural learning , based on the hu"an capacity to thin sy"bolically.

Culture is also trans"itted through obser(ation , children pay attention to the things that go onaround the".

Culture is also absorbed unconsciously * e.g. no one tells Latins to stand closer together than ?orth

6"ericans do.

0nculturation , the process by )hich a child learns his or her culture.

6s a result of co""on enculturation people share e7periences "e"ories (alues and beliefs.

Culture is +y"bolic

+y"bol , so"ething (erbal or non(erbal that arbitrarily and by con(ention stands for so"ething else

)ith )hich it has no necessary or natural connection. The "ost i"portant sy"bol in a culture is

language yet there are also non(erbal sy"bols such as flags )hich stand for countries.



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Culture is +hared

Culture is an attribute not of indi(iduals but of indi(iduals as "e"bers of groups. 'e learn our

culture by obser(ing listening taling and interacting )ith other people. 0nculturation unifies

people by pro(iding us )ith co""on e7periences.

Culture is @ntegrated

Culture is an integrated syste" )ith each of its ele"ents interrelated to all the others * )e cannot tae

an ele"ent out of the conte7t of so"e culture and place it in another at )ill. Culture is lie a co"ple7

syste" , =Aou touch a culture in one place and e(erything else is affected. 0.T.allB

Culture +eies ?ature

Culture taes the natural biological urges and teaches us ho) to e7press the" in particular )ays:

people ha(e to eat but culture teaches us )hat )hen and ho)D people "ust eli"inate )astes fro"

their bodies but the "ethods differ.

Culture is Eatterned

Cultures are not haphaard collections of custo"s and beliefs but integrated patterned syste"s.

Custo"s institutions beliefs and (alues are interrelatedD if one changes others change as )ell.

Culture is 6dapti(e and Maladapti(e

To cope )ith or adapt to en(iron"ental stresses hu"ans rely on both biological traits and learned

sy"bol,based beha(ior patterns , =cultural adapti(e its= containing custo"ary patterns acti(ities

and tools.

Cultural traits and patterns can also be "aladapti(e threatening the groupBs continued e7istence

sur(i(al and reproduction.

Eractices adapti(e or har"less for one culture "ay be "aladapti(e for another.

Culture @s +electi(e

e(ery culture represents a li"ited choice of beha(ior patterns fro" the infinite patterns of hu"an

e7perience.

Culture @s 0thnocentric

0thnocentris" centeredness on oneBs o)n group is the tendency to (ie) oneBs o)n culture as best and

to >udge the beha(ior and beliefs of culturally different people by oneBs o)n standards.

The opposite is cultural relati(is" the position that the (alues and standards of cultures differ and

deser(e respect e7tre"e position argues that cultures should be >udged solely by their o)n

standards.

RFL0+ 6?- @GL6T@G?+

0(ery culture teaches its "e"bers )hat is decent )hat is )orth )ishing for )hat dignity is.

6lthough cultural rules tell us )hat to do and ho) to do it people can learn interpret and "anipulate

the sa"e rule in different )ays )ith any rules being (iolated eg. auto"obile speed li"its.

The ideal culture - )hat people say they should do and )hat they say they do.

Real culture refers to the actual beha(ior.

F?@0R+6L@TA E6RT@CFL6R@TA 6?- H0?0R6L@TA

Iiopsychological e9uality a"ong hu"an groups , individuals differ in e"otional and intellectual

capacities yet all hu"an populations ha(e e9ui(alent capacities for culture. ?o e(idence that genetic

differences e7plain cultural (ariation.

Fni(ersal traits are the ones that "ore or less distinguish Homo sapiens fro" other species:Iiologically based uni(ersals:



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1 a long period of infant dependency

2 year,round rather than seasonal se7uality and

3 a co"ple7 brain that enables us to use sy"bols languages and tools.

Esychological uni(ersals include :

1 gro)th in the )o"b

2 birth itself and3 interaction )ith parents and parent substitutes.

Earticularity , different cultures e"phasie different things.

Henerality , one cultural generality that is present in "any but not all societies is the nuclear fa"ily a

inship group consisting of parents and children.

?ational culture refers to the e7periences beliefs learned beha(ior patterns and (alues shared by

citiens of the sa"e nation.

@nternational culture is the ter" for cultural traditions that e7tend beyond national boundaries.

+ubcultures are different cultural patterns and traditions associated )ith subgroups in the sa"e

co"ple7 society.

0thnocentris" , the tendency to (ie) oneBs o)n culture as best and to >udge the beha(ior and beliefs of culturally different people by oneBs o)n standards.

The opposite is cultural relati(is" the position that the (alues and standards of cultures differ and

deser(e respect e7tre"e position argues that cultures should be >udged solely by their o)n

standards.

2. Culture ChangeCulture @s -yna"ic , it is an ongoing process and sub>ect to fluctuationD it seldo" re"ains constant.

Culture Change: any shared, relatively enduring transformation of culturally patterned belief or

behavior. @n any gi(en society there is a "ingling of continuity and change: no culture today is as it

has al)ays been.6ll cultures change for a (ariety of reasons:

1. change is ine(itable , people search for better "ore efficient )ays of doing the things they "ust do.

2. in the 'est additionally change:

, is (ie)ed as essentially good: it separates us fro" our =sa(age= or =pri"iti(e= past.

, is used as synony"ous )ith ter"s as =progress= ="oderniation= and =de(elop"ent=.

@t is to be re"e"bered though that:

, there has ne(er been a change de(elop"ent progress or "oderniation )ith only benefits , a

benefit to so"eone or so"ething in(ol(es a cost to so"eone or so"ething else.

, factionalis" and di(isi(eness are co""on responses to changing circu"stances : so"e peoplereadily accept any change only to beco"e disillusioned by its lac of fit )ith their beliefs or practices:

a desire is generated a"ong the disillusioned to return to =the good old days.=

Voluntary change , based on a nondirected and basically infor"al interaction bet)een indi(iduals ,

occurs )ithout specific efforts on the part of anyone to introduce or i"ple"ent it.

Directed, intended or planned change , acti(ely sought by a change agent )ho )ors to)ard the

i"ple"entation or acceptance of change )ith or )ithout the )illing participation of those to be

affected.

+o"e for" of coercion is re9uired to get other "e"bers of a culture group to adopt a change in their

beliefs or practicesD left alone a cultural grouping )ould probably choose not to change any of their

learned )ays.Cultural 0cology



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u"ans are ani"als and lie all other ani"als "ust "aintain an adapti(e relationship )ith their

ecosyste"s in order to sur(i(e.

-e"ocritus ca. 4&,ca. 3#& I.C. proposed that cultural de(elop"ent )as based on better adaptations

to the en(iron"ent

The general principle that adaptation operates through negative constraints: 0cological and

de"ographic constraints of diet population soil fertility etc. set li"its to )hat is (iable.Culture does not itself adapt to en(iron"ents but is the "eans through )hich individuals adapt to their

en(iron"ent in a process of individual cultural innovation.

ACCULTURATION. 1. The modification of a culture by adopting new cultural traits fro" a

society )ith different cultural traditions.

2. Cultural assimilation or replacement of one set of cultural traits by another. Co""only

"aterial culture and technology are "ore easily assi"ilated than ideologies religion or language.

Acculturation "ust be distinguished fro" enculturation. Enculturation refers to the process by

)hich the de(eloping indi(idual learns the culture language nor"s (alues etc. of his or her group.

Together )ith socialiation enculturation for"s part of the "echanis" of cultural trans"ission

)ithin a culture.

@n contrast acculturation refers to second-culture acquisition through contact with different

cultures.

ACC!"RA"#$%, the process of cultural transfor"ation resulting fro" the contact of societies

g enerally under conditions of significant ine9uality in the scale po)er or technological co"ple7ity of

the societies in(ol(ed.

Dimensions of acculturation :

1 the maintenance of cultural distinctiveness , cultural maintenance - refers to the e7tent to )hich

indi(iduals desire to retain cultural distincti(eness deciding )hether to preser(e their cultural identity

custo"s and traditions or relin9uish their cultural bacgrounds in order to beco"e part of a largersocietyD

2 the maintenance of positive interethnic contact and participation - the e7tent to )hich indi(iduals

desire to "aintain positi(e relations )ith the larger society and other ethnic groups.

"he acculturation strategies of:

, integration follo)ed by indi(iduals )ho consider it of (alue to "aintain their ethnic identity

and at the sa"e ti"e to "aintain relationships )ith "e"bers of other ethnic groupsD

, separation adopted by those )ho posit an e7clusi(e (alue on the "aintenance of their cultural

distincti(eness and do not cherish interethnic relationsD

, assimilation endorsed by those less concerned )ith the "aintenance of their ethnic identity)ho (alue interethnic relationsD

, marginali&ation of those indi(iduals )ho (alue neither the "aintenance of their ethnic identity

nor relationships )ith "e"bers of other ethnic groups.

6cculturati(e change "ay be the conse9uence of:

, direct cultural trans"ission * diffusionD iffusion, or borro)ing fro" another culture is another

)ay in )hich change occurs. The assi"ilation of )hat is borro)ed accelerates as cultures co"e

into direct contact )ith each other. !or e7a"ple as Japan and ?orth 6"erica share "ore co",

"erce )e see 6"ericans assi"ilating Japanese business "anage"ent practices and the Japanese

incorporating 6"erican "areting tactics.

, Cultural calamity ' e.g. the effects of )ar or re(olution.



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, noncultural causes such as ecological or de"ographic "odifications induced by an i"pinging

cultureD

, it "ay be delayed as )ith internal ad>ust"ents follo)ing the acceptance of alien traits or

patternsD

, a reacti(e adaptation of traditional "odes of life * independent in(ention.

Invention is usually defined as the disco(ery of ne) practices tools or concepts that "ost "e" ,

bers of the culture e(entually accept. @n ?orth 6"erica the ci(il rights "o(e"ent and the in(ention of

tele(ision are t)o good e7a"ples of ho) ideas and products reshaped a culture.

1. #ndependent invention: de(elop"ent of the sa"e culture trait or pattern in separate cultures as a

result of co"parable needs and circu"stances.

2. Diffusion: the transfer of culture traits fro" one society to another through "igration trade )ar or

other contactD

, direct: )hen t)o cultures inter"arry )age )ar on or trade )ith each other or )hen they )atch the

sa"e T progra".

, indirect: )hen products and patterns "o(e fro" population 6 to population C (ia population I

)ithout any firsthand contact bet)een 6 and C.6lthough cultures do change "ost change only affects the surface structure of the culture. The deep

structure resists "a>or alterations.

'hen analying cultural change )e cannot be fooled because do)nto)n Toyo loos "uch lie Earis

London or ?e) Aor. Most of )hat is i"portant in a culture is belo) the surface.

Changes in dress food transportation housing and the lie )hile (isible are si"ply attached to the

e7isting cultural (alue syste". 0le"ents associated )ith the deep structure of a culture such as (alues

ethics and "orals )or and leisure definitions of freedo" the i"portance of the past religious

practices the pace of life and attitudes to)ard gender and age are so (ery deep in the structure of a

culture that they tend to persist generation after generation.

3. !aterial Culture

Cultures "ay be classed by three large categories of ele"ents:

1. artifacts )hich include ite"s ranging fro" arro)heads to hydrogen bo"bs "agic char"s to

antibiotics torches to electric lights and chariots to >et planesD 2. concepts )hich include such

beliefs or (alue syste"s as right or )rong Hod and "an ethics and the general "eaning of lifeD and

3. beha(iors )hich refer to the actual practice of concepts or beliefs.

@t is not easy to distinguish the "e"bers of our species fro" others gi(en infor"ation on ani"al

beha(ior:

, Communication is )idespread if not uni(ersal a"ong ani"als especially "a""alsD

, a fe) pri"ates in the laboratory can create and "anipulate sym(ols)

, tool ma*ing in the ani"al ingdo" is far fro" unco""on and tool use is ubi9uitousD

, )hether other ani"als are self,a)are or ha(e consciousness is contro(ersial it has its cha"pionsD

, it has also been argued that so"e nonhu"an species are culture-(earers at least in the sense that a

group perpetuates through learning beha(ior patterns not shared by other groups of that species.

'hat "ight be "ost distincti(e and significant about our species: hu"an life consists of ceaseless and

(aried interactions a"ong people and "any inds of things: +aterial Culture< +C or artifacts.

6rtifacts ;artefacts< in Iritain co"e fro" the Latin arte, "eaning ;sill< and factum, "eaning

;so"ething done< , an indirect reference to a hu"an being an artificer.



6ll hu"an beings ha(e e7perience of li(ing in a (isible )orld of hu"an,constructed artefacts. Te7tiles car(ings pictures d)ellings furniture utensils boos scripts graphics fil"s photographs ,

)e gro) up surrounded by constructed (isible ob>ects both flat surfaces and three,di"ensional for"s.

6n artifact is any "aterial as distinct fro" spiritual or "ental pheno"enon that e7hibits one or "ore

properties produced by a gi(en species. Eeople e"ploy artifacts for all undertaings interposing the" bet)een e(ery basic need , e.g. food shelter defense reproduction and establishing and

"anipulating social relationships , and its satisfaction.

Artifacts are sy"bols and can e7plain "uch about society: religious beliefs for"s of go(ern"ent

"anual de7terity le(el of intelligence artistic co"prehension a(ailable natural "aterials structure of

co""erce and scientific and e"otional sophistication of the producing society.

@n 'estern societies e(en the ac9uisition and consu"ption of (egetable foodstuffs directly in(ol(es

"any things: far"ing i"ple"ents and "achines pesticides and herbicides trucs and )arehouses

pacaging "aterials grocery display cases grocery carts bags auto"obiles refrigerators and

cupboards cooing and ser(ing utensils plates and bo)ls sil(er)are garbage disposals etc.

Religious cere"onies cannot be practiced )ithout appropriate paraphernalia: special buildings lights

or candles icons sacred scrolls hy"n and prayer boos and priestly (est"ents.

u"ans interact not )ith other hu"ans per se but )ith artifacts and hu"ans co"pounded )ith

artifacts * al"ost all co""unication and hu"an beha(ior in(ol(e artifacts.

The artifacts include portable ob>ects structures do"esticated plants and ani"als and "odifications

to the hu"an body such as tattoos and styled hair. Human agency is either i"plicit or e7plicit: natural

ob>ects such as trees fossils or seletons are usually e7cluded fro" definitions of +C on the grounds

that they are not man-made or man-modified e.g. food artifacts.

The use of the ter" +A"ER#A! C!"RE )as first encountered in 0nglish in the 1% th c. the first

reference to such a concept according to the $ED "ade in 1$43 by Erescott in reference to the

/"aterial ci(iliation of Me7ico.

+aterial culture is that seg"ent of "ans physical en(iron"ent )hich is purposely shaped by hi"according to a culturally dictated plan

+aterial culture, often referred to as a "irror in )hich "an can see hi"self can be defined in

(arious )ays:

+C - the actions of "anufacture and use and the theories about the production use and nature of

"aterial ob>ectsD

+C - the ideas about ob>ects e7ternal to the "ind resulting fro" hu"an beha(ior D the ideas about

hu"an beha(ior re9uired to "anufacture these ob>ectsD

+C , artifacts and cultural landscapes that people create according to traditional patterned and often

tacit concepts of (alue and utility )hich ob>ecti(ely represent a groupBs sub>ecti(e (ision of custo"

and orderD

+C- the totality of artifacts in a culture used to cope )ith the physical )orld to facilitate socialintercourse to delight our fancy and to create sy"bols of "eaning=D

+C ' the seg"ent of hu"anindBs biosocial en(iron"ent that has been purposely shaped by people

according to culturally dictated plans.

+aterial Culture tudies +C "ay be defined as the study of ho) people use ob>ects to cope )ith

and interpret their physical )orld. The principal tas of +C is an atte"pt to no) )hat can be

no)n about and fro" the past and present creations of hu"anind.

, se(eral disciplines:

, art, architectural, and decorative arts historyD

, cultural geographyD

, the history of technologyD

, fol*loristicsD

, historical archaeology.



#

Evidential ualities "ore pro"inent in +C e(idence than in docu"entary e(idence:

- evidential precedence * +C predates (erbal culture by se(eral thousand years tool"aing preceded

the in(ention of )riting. istorians "ar stages of the early hu"an history by the ind of ob>ects

people could "ae: the Ealeolithic ?eolithic Irone and @ron 6ges , the cultures )here things )ere

first for"ed out of stone and then of "etal.

6rtifacts )ear out brea do)n are da"aged destroyed or lost )ood rots "etal corrodes and stone

cru"bles yet +C e(idence directly e"bodies actual historical e(ents artifacts have the po/er to

sta(ili&e e0perience of the pastD

, three-dimensionality is a non(erbal co"prehension of the significance of "ass scale and a"plitudeD

- /ider representativeness , non(erbal data "ay pro(ide a )ay of understanding the past cultural

acti(ities of a larger "a>ority of non,literate people.

, an affective nonrational but not irrational mode of apprehension: )e can engage another culture not

)ith our "inds the seat of our cultural (iases but )ith our senses fingertip acuaintance and

fingertip *no/ledge of the +C .

Co""on errors in +C tudies:

a randomness of data survivalD historical e7planations are based not on all that once )as but only

on sur(i(ing data not necessarily representati(e of their "aers and usersD artifacts often co"e

totally )renched fro" their original historical and cultural conte7ts.b difficulty of access and verification: "aterial culture e(idence cannot be easily duplicated

"icrofil"ed published and "ade )idely a(ailable to other scholars.

1c tendency to/ard progressive determinism: sho)n in "useu"s artifacts often pro"ote a vie/

of history as a story of success and achievement, neglecting the do)nside of hu"an life.

d proclivity for synchronic interpretation , a descripti(e study of ob>ects )ithout reference to ti"e

duration or cultural change.

"he material culture of everyday life acno)ledges the physical ob>ect in all its "ateriality and

enco"passes the )or of design "aing distributing consu"ing using discarding recycling etc.

Iut abo(e all it focuses on ho) things ha(e gone through all those stages as part of the mediation

process (et/een people and the physical /orld .

The ouse

Gf all the categories of +C architecture stands out as an artefact of great comple0ity but also as the

conte7t in )hich "ost other "aterial culture is used placed and understood. @n industrialied societies

"ost of )hat "atters to people is happening behind the closed doors of the pri(ate sphere.

6 house enco"passes an array of different "aterials furniture fi7tures orna"ents dKcor

collecti(ely creating a d)elling e7perience that is greater than the su" of its parts. They are )hat

transforms our house into our home.

The house is the /ob>ectification of a relationship LK(i,+trauss that is "arriage. 6cti(ities such as

cooing eating drining bringing up children (isiting and reading ha(e a profound influence on the

"aterial life and culture of households. +pace is used in coherent )ays )ith appropriate furniture and

utensils for public and pri(ate acti(ities so"e of )hich notably eating and drining are the occasionof social contacts. Their (alue is reflected in the utensils used and the introduction of ne) decorated

table)ares changes in eating and drining habits and in the )ealthier households separately

furnished roo"s for eating.

Clothing and te0tiles - a particularly inti"ate 9uality as they lie ne7t to the sin and inhabit the spaces

of pri(ate life. @n the +C of e(eryday life te0tiles are an em(odiment of self and group identity

particularly )ith reference to time in relation to age, generation and stages in the life cycle.

"oys, the "aterial artifacts of ;play< =a free acti(ity standing 9uite consciously outside BordinaryB

life as being Bnot seriousB but at the sa"e ti"e absorbing the player intensely and utterly= Johan

uiinga Homo !udens are hypotheses a(out culture )hich raise 9uestions: 'hat ideas about life

play children etc. does a particular toy suggest o) )as it "ade o) )as it used 'hy if it is

old did it sur(i(e o) is it related to other ob>ects used in play



$

Gn a "ore specific le(el the status of indi(idual goods has inspired particular "oral criti9ues:

, goods ha(e been criticied for under"ining control of the self such as alcohol tobacco and other

narcoticsD

, goods the"sel(es "ay be "orally acceptable but the )ay in )hich they are produced by non-free

or s/eated la(our "ay be the cause of "oral and political co"plaintD

, goods ha(e been criticied )hen consu"ed by particular sections of the co""unity such as by

children.

4 . The "odyThe "ody is the threshold:

- between #ature and Culture

, between the interior sub$ective self %the individual& and the e'terior ob$ective world %society .

, The body is the basis for a different conception of no)ledge: /e *no/ /ith our (odiesD they

authenticate e0perience: if there is any truth it is the truth of the body.

, the body is the source of the "ost potent sy"bols in hu"an cultures e.g. /the apple of "y eye.

6ll hu"an beings are interested in their o)n bodies. They are interested in )hat distinguishes theinside fro" the outside. They are interested especially in the orifices through )hich the inside

connects )ith the outside"outh anus urethra penis (agina nipples eyes nose ears. @n all

religions no)n to history to ethnography and to archaeology such orifices ha(e "a>or sy"bolic

significance e(en though )e are not al)ays certain >ust )hat they are sy"bolic of.

0(en though no) e(erything see"s related to the body , body i"age body language body ,

consciousness liberation of the body * there are still so"e o bstacles to the study of the body:

1. 2uritan legacy )ith its inhibitions on speaing about se7uality defecation nudity and bodily

display or decayD

2. -ualistic models of culture (s. biology and body (s. spirit the relati(e i"portance of "ind and

body (aries historically and culturally: e.g. prior to the 1%th c. in 0urope there )as no clear

conception of "ental illness such sy"pto"s being considered either the result of sin or possession of physical e7cesses or of birth defectsD hysteria in )o"en )as ascribed to the )o"b , uterus Hree

hyst3r4 - "o(ing around the body and getting too close to the brain.

Iiology "ust be understood as historically and culturally located to grasp the social place of the (ody

and the )ays in )hich )e e7perience oursel(es as em(odied .

The e7pression of hu"an biological functions and needs is culturally shaped and socially organied:

)e ha(e the social construction of the (ody the social control and regulation of the (ody together

)ith individual self-surveillance i.e. controlling ones body care of the infant is "ostly care of its

body the focus in particular on the process of defecation the "ost inti"ate area of bodily

"anage"ent )ith the issues of control /toilet training5 in(ol(ed.

The body is not >ust "ade up of parts: the relati(e i"portance of parts and their relationship to the)hole is culturally defined left side vs. right side: e.g. Musli"s strict codificationD;left,handed >ob<

;but le)e> nogi<D a(ove the /aist vs.(elo/ the /aist .

Iodies are bearers of (arious social "eanings e.g class and gender: there are obser(able anato"ical

differences bet)een "ost "ale and fe"ale bodies vive la petite difference6, yet prior to the 1$th c.

"ales and fe"ales )ere thought to ha(e basically the sa"e genitalia )ith the difference that the

fe"aleBs )ere located inside and the "aleBs outside the body.

The aesthetic ideals for body shape e.g. association of "uscularity and "asculinity ha(e core

cultural (alues encoded in the".

7ody art , the hu"an body is the oldest (ehicle for hu"anityBs creati(e i"pulses e.g. tattooing and

piercing D

Maring the hu"an body "ay be also the oldest practice of religion: "any ancient cultures inscribed

the body )ith protecti(e sy"bols and "anipulated the body in rituals designed to co""unicate )ith



%

gods and spirits. The per"anent physical change incurred during an initiation rite , tattooing scarring

or circu"cision , per"anently transfor"s the initiates psyche )orld (ie) and spirituality

7ody modification practices e.g. Chinese foot-(inding * "ale do"ination of )o"enD ?ati(e

6"ericans practices of shaping the infants head * !lat eads.

7ody mutilation has long been part of non,Christian cultures as a positi(e "ar of identity )hile in

"any "odern 'estern cultures per"anently "aring the body has been considered degrading orde(iant e.g. con(icts. +till "any parents circumcise their "ale children for aesthetic and cultural

reasons and do not consider this an act of "utilation. Many indi(iduals )ho tattoo pierce and scar

their bodies )ish to e7press their indi(iduality to send a "essage of rebellion and affinity )ith

"arginalied groups e.g. the self, har"ing and self,degrading beha(ior of the pun* su(culture.

The history of )o"enBs fashions pro(ides e7a"ples of )o"en altering their physical being in daily

acts of self-mutilation in response to the fetishi&ing of their (odies. These actions subtracti(e but

perfor"ed to achie(e greater beauty and perfection in the eye of the beholder "ay also be interpreted

as an indi(idualBs initiating herself into the socially acceptable being that is construed as a se7ually

"ature adult. These include: t)eeings depilations star(ation diets hair cuttings hair per"ings hair

straightenings facial scrubs and acid abrasions nail clipping and cuticle tri""ings liposuctions

e7cisions of bony tissue breast >obs and hip >obs and nose >obs.@n so"e belief syste"s "anBs body "ediates bet)een earthly and spiritual ele"ents: by painting the

body or donning a "as or costu"e the participant assu"es a different role in preparation for

co""unication )ith the spiritual )orldD ritual adorn"ent not only transfor"s the body but enhances

the ability of the participant to enter altered states of consciousness AC and recei(e di(ine

"essages.

@n the days of sla(ery in 6"erica 6nglo,0uropean Christians appalled at the sensuousness of the

religious e7perience of sla(es often banned singing dru""ing and dancing re>ecting the 6frican,

influenced beliefs and practices that incorporated hu"ans their bodies and other profane ob>ects into

the religious e7perience.

Many conte"porary religions )hile still encouraging ritualistic fasting sy"bolic baptis" and other

uses of the body to aug"ent religious de(otion place "ore i"portance on organied churchesleaders and te7ts to con(ey religious doctrine and pro(ide an a(enue for participation and rede"ption.

8asting , a religious acti(ityD eating disorder (ehaviors * a 9uasi,religious acti(ity , "anifest a 9uest

for 9uasi,spiritual purity and transcendence lie ascetics and saints atte"pting to attain spiritual

ele(ation. Anore0ia and (ulimia "ay be (ie)ed as "asochistic atte"pts to establish autono"y and

ritualistic atte"pts to transfor" the self.

6long )ith "arriage as a relationship and econo"ic aspects of "arital life se7uality has beco"e a

"a>or ele"ent in the )ay in )hich the "arital relationship is constructed and understood. B'ith My

Iody @ Thee 'orshipBD a change fro" thining about se0ual activity as procreation to seeing it as

recreation increasing the su" of hu"an happiness.

5. (eproductionReproduction - is a social process - begins before conception, continues after birth . !or hu"an

reproduction to tae place:

, parents "ust ha(e "aterial and psychological supportD

, pregnant )o"an and her fetus "ust be nourished and protectedD

, nursing "other and her infant "ust be fed and cared forD

, a co""it"ent "ust be "ade by the parents to find the resources to rear the ne)born fro" infancy

and childhood to adulthood.

To pre(ent the erosion of their standard of li(ing people often li"it population gro)th by using

"eans of reproducti(e controls such as infanticide and non"edical abortion "any cultures do not

regard children as hu"an until certain cere"onies such as na"ing or hair cutting.



1&

6fter pregnancy reproduction regulated by direct or indirect infanticide or pedicide the illing of

young children. Maltreat"ent of fetuses infants and young children is a co""on "eans of lo)ering

reproducti(ity.

@ndirect abortion , hea(y )or loads and "eager diets are i"posed on pregnant )o"enD

-irect abortion , star(ation diets for pregnant )o"enD

@ndirect infanticide , inade9uate feeding and careless and indifferent handlingD

-irect infanticide , star(ation dehydration e7posure to the ele"ents suffocationD

Erolonged lactation , a"enorrhea disruption of the "enstrual cycle , "others "ust be suitably

nourishedD beyond "onths , ane"ia in infant iron deficiency

The Costs of rearing children include:

, the e7tra food consu"ed during pregnancyD

, the )or forgone by pregnant )o"enD

, the e7penses in(ol(ed in pro(iding "otherBs "il and other foods during infancy and childhoodD

, the burden of carrying infants and children fro" one place to anotherD

, in "ore co"ple7 societies e7penditures for clothing housing "edical care and education.

The birth process itself is dangerous and often places the life of the "other at ris.

The Ienefits of reproduction include the contributions that the children "ae:

, to food production, to fa"ily inco"e in general and

, to the care and econo"ic security of their parents.

, children are also (alued for their role in "arital e7changes and intergroup alliancesD

, people ha(e children for senti"ental reasons as )ell.

'ith industrialiation )or no longer so"ething done by fa"ily "e"bers on the fa"ily far" or in

the fa"ily shop the cost of rearing children rose rapidly * child labor la)s co"pulsory education

statutes , parents )ait longer before they recei(e any econo"ic benefits fro" their children.

Longer life spans and spiraling "edical costs "ae it increasingly unrealistic for parents to e7pect

help fro" their children.

To "eet the rise in the cost of rearing children in industrial societies )i(es as )ell as husbands "ust

participate in the )age,earning labor force.

. )amily-o"estic sphere: a d)elling space shelter residence or household in )hich certain acti(ities tae

place:

, preparation and consu"ption of foodD

, cleaning groo"ing teaching and disciplining the youngD

, sleepingD and

, adult se7ual intercourse.

+e7uality , the 9uest for se7ual pleasure "oti(ates "uch of hu"an beha(ior

Homo sapiens is capable of being the se7iest species in the ani"al ingdo".

, hu"an "aleBs psychological preoccupation )ith se7., hu"ans ha(e no innate breeding season , ready for se7 at any ti"e.

o)e(er , because of the per(asi(e effects of culture hu"ans can be the least instead of the "ost se7y

of pri"ates , an i""ense a"ount of cultural (ariation.

, e(er,)idening separation of the hedonistic fro" the reproducti(e aspects of se7ual relations , e.g.

increased production and consu"ption of pornographic "aterials.

6nthropologists use the ter" gender to denote "eanings associated )ith culturally defined se7,based

identities .

0nculturation and education increasingly carried out in special nondo"estic buildings schools by

specialists teachers.#. Marriage

Marriage:



11

, is a relationship established bet)een a )o"an and one or "ore personsD

, assures that a child , concei(ed and born under certain appro(ed circu"stance , is accorded full

birth rights.

Legiti"acy , =Marriage is the licensing of parenthood= IronisNa) Malino)si , fe) of peoples

concern the"sel(es )hether a child is legiti"ate , "ore i"portant is )ho )ill ha(e the right of

controlling the childBs future.

, Matrilineality (s. Eatrilineality

ER@?C@E6L !GRM+ G! FM6? M6RR@6H0

Monoga"y , one spouse e7clusi(ely and for lifeD

+erial Monoga"y , one spouse at a ti"e re"arriage after death or di(orceD

Eolyga"y , "ore than one spouse at a ti"eD

Eolygyny , "ore than one )ife at a ti"eD

Eolyandry , "ore than one husband at a ti"eD

Consensual "arriage co""on,la) "arriage.

The 07tended !a"ily , a do"estic group of siblings their spouses and their children or parents and

"arried children , controls the producti(e reproducti(e and se7ual functions of their "e"bers.

@ndi(iduals ser(e the interests of the group , "arriage seen in the conte7t of group interests.

Matrifocal households , "other,child do"estic groups:, girls "arried early to "uch older "en , high rates of )ido)hood )hile children are still young also

produced by )arfare and political unrest.

, The "other has greater access to sources of inco"e than the biological father

, !atherBs access to sources of )ealth and inco"e depends on "igration or absence fro" ho"e for

e7tended periods

, Mother has greater access to housing

, Migration or higher "ortality of "ales leads to a shortage of "ales a(ailable for "arriage.

@ncest , sister,brother father,daughter and "other,son se7 relations and "arriages.

@ncest a(oidance theories *instinctD a(oidance of close inbreeding.

+ig"und !reud , children and parents of the opposite se7 ha(e a strong se7ual attration to each other.

0ndoga"y * "arrying )ithin the group

07oga"y * "arrying outside fo the group+GC@6L 6?- CFLTFR6L 6-6?T6H0+ G! 0OGH6MA

, "arriage to establish long,distance net)ors of inspeople.

, li"iting the se7ual freedo" of the "arriage partners , prohibition on e7tra"arital se7 adultery.

, increasing producti(e and reproducti(e strength of the inter"arried groups:

, facilitating e7ploitation of resources o(er a larger area

, facilitating trade

, the ability to "obilie large nu"bers of )arriors.

Ereferential Marriages , rules that stipulate )ho is to "arry )ho" ha(ing gi(en a )o"an a)ay in

"arriage "ost groups e7pect either "aterial or political gains.

Ereferential "arriage rules such as the:

, le(irate * "an "arying his dead brothers )ido) Gnan, sororate * "an "arrying his dead )ifes sister

e7e"plify the corporate nature of the "arriage bond.

Eracices such as

, do)ry

, bride,price

co"pensation to the do"estic corporation for the loss of a producti(ely and reproducti(ely (aluable

person.

*. !agicMagic , belief that supernatural po)ers can be "ade to act in certain )ays through the use of certain

prescribed for"ulas: Ja"es !raer separated "agic fro" religion:

, "agic: the course of nature deter"ined =by the operation of i""utable la)s acting "echanically.= @f

participants thin they are in control of the forces go(erning e(ents feel certain about the outco"e

and e7perience no need for hu"ble supplication their beliefs and practices are "agic.



12

, religion: the course of nature is (ariableD the conscious beings )ho control it can change its

course for the benefit of the )orshiper. 'hen participants insecure , inclined to supplicate and re9uest

fa(ors and dispensations , their beliefs and actions )ere essentially religious.

?ot all cultures approach their gods as supplicants. @n "any cultures people try to inti"idate

bribe and lie to their gods.

!raer thought "agic based on pseudoscience * causal relationships * post hoc ergo propter hoc)also pars pro toto.

t)o principles:

1. sy"pathetic "agic , =lie produces lie=

2. the la) of contagion by contact 9ualities are assu"ed.

'itchcraft )iardry Pfro" G0 /itan * /to no) * co"p. Eolish ;/ied9ma< )ith ;/ied&ie< ,

e7planation for un)anted e(ents.

+orcery , )itchcraft for e(il purposes blac "agic (s. )hite "agic

-i(ination * learning the future literally: /learning the )ill of gods * tossing the coin biblio"ancy

etc.

Magic is associated )ith traditional tribal pre,industrial or pre,"odern societies. Modern societies are

usually percei(ed as ones in )hich scientific and technological rationality pre(ail so thoroughly as toyield no place to "agical thought and beha(iour.

6part fro" the predo"inance of science and technology the fact that "odern societies are largely

'estern societies and Christian by tradition and that Christianity to a (ery considerable e7tent

eli"inated the "agical di"ension further e7plains the association bet)een "agic and /pri"iti(e or

traditional societies.

Gn the other hand it could be argued that "agic has ne(er been eradicated fro" "odern societies. @t

sur(i(es in the for" of superstition for"s of di(ination such as reading horoscopes resort to

alternati(e therapies treat"ents and so on. +o"e )ould point to an e7tensi(e re(i(al of "agic in

conte"porary culture )ith a "ared intensification of interest in holistic and alternati(e "edicine the

paranor"al and the rise of ?e) 6ge and neo,Eaganis".+. (eligion

R0L@H@G? fro" relegere, =to read again= or fro" religare, =to bind=

(eligion

- beliefs and behavior patterns to control the area of the universe beyond control

- belief in supernatural beings and forces

, mans relation to that which he regards as holy =holy= need not be supernatural no

polytheistic religion recognies a single di(ine ruler of the uni(erse or personal there are

religions such as inayana Iuddhis" in )hich beliefs in personal deities play no role at all.

=Relation= to the holy:

, 'orship prayerD sacrificeD conte"plation "agic incantationD, Moral conductD

, Right beliefD

, Earticipation in religious institutions.

0(ery religion has at least so"e of these ele"ents:

, rituals to perfor"

, for"ulas to recite

, tales to narrate

, ob>ects to "anipulate

, places to fre9uent or a(oid

, holy days to eep, natural pheno"ena by )hich to predict the future



13

, charis"atic leaders to follo)

, truths to affir"

, a literature to ponder

, precepts to obey.

Religion,"aing characteristics:1. Ielief in supernatural beings gods.

2. 6 distinction bet)een sacred and profane ob>ects.

3. Ritual acts focused on sacred ob>ects.

4. 6 "oral code belie(ed to be sanctioned by the gods.

5. Characteristically religious feelings a)e sense of "ystery sense of guilt adoration

. Erayer and other for"s of co""unication )ith gods.

#. 'orld (ie) , of the )orld and of the indi(idual.

$. Grganiation of oneBs life based on the )orld (ie).

%. 6 social group bound together by the abo(e , a church or a co""unity of belie(ers )ho share

co""on sy"bols and practices and are held together.

Religion , social functions:

1. sanctions a )ide range of conduct by pro(iding notions of right and )rong ta(oosD

2. sets precedents for acceptable beha(iorD

3. ser(es to lift the burden of decision,"aing fro" indi(iduals and places responsibility )ith the

godsD

4. "aintaining social solidarityD

5. ser(es education , ritual cere"onies enhance learning of tribal lore.

Myth , the basis for the )orld(ie).

Cos"ogonic "yth , the story of the first creation.

Christians are taught to regard the cross and the consecrated bread and )ine )ith re(erence by being

told of the Crucifi7ion and the Last +upper.

Types of religions:

1. #ndividualistic , do,it,yourself religion.

2. hamanistic * shaman in Tungus language the part,ti"e religious specialist consulted in ti"es of

stress and an7iety ) di(iners curers spirit "ediu"s "agiciansD psychologically predisposed

to)ard hallucinatory e7periences: sha"anistic trance possession.

3. Communal , no full,ti"e religious specialists: groups age grades "enBs societies clans or

lineages of non,specialists assu"e responsibility for regular or occasional perfor"ance of rituals

dee"ed essential e.g. +un -ance of the @ndians of the Elains.

Co""unal rites , t)o "a>or categories:

6 rites of solidarity or intensification , participation enhances the sense of group identityD seasonalrituals , annual cere"onies to see fa(orable conditions surrounding such critical acti(ities as planting

and har(estingD e.g. funerary cere"onies , social read>ust"ent after the loss of the deceased.

I rites of passage separation * seclusion * return celebrate the social "o(e"ent of indi(idualsD

gi(e co""unal recognition to the ne) relationships:

, reproduction

, the achie(e"ent of "anhood and )o"anhood

, "arriage

, death.

Tote"s , ob>ects identifying group usually ani"al na"es and e"ble"sD "e"bers of the group "ust

refrain fro" har"ing or eating their tote".

4. Ecclesiastical : hierarchy of full,ti"e specialists , clergy or =priests= , associated )ith and under

the control of a central te"ple.



14

, the "ore highly centralied the political syste" the "ore highly centralied the ecclesiastical

bureaucracy. Material support related to pri(ileges of ta7ation tithe.

+upernatural beings:

, "a>or deities gods and goddesses , great but re"ote beingsD

, nonhu"an spirit beingsD and, ancestral spirits the nu"ber of a personBs souls (aries cross,culturally.

6ni"is" , a belief in spiritual beings Latin anima * /soul other than ancestors )ho are belie(ed to

ani"ate all of nature.

6ni"atis" , belief in an i"personal life force in people ani"als and ob>ects )hich gi(es "ana the

capacity to be po)erful and successful.

Re(italiation "o(e"ents , atte"pts to change the society under political,econo"ic stress. e.g. @ndian

Hhost -ance

These "o(e"ents are so"eti"es referred to as:

, nati(istic, re(i(alistic

, "illenarian Millenniu" or

, "essianic Messiah.

,

1&. /orldviewReligion plays an i"portant role in creating a )orld picture and in relating it to the ethos. 0thos and

)orld,(ie) are "utually supporti(e.

6ll hu"ans hold )orld(ie)s and "odes of thought. !unda"ental to all )orld(ie)s are abstract beliefs

about hu"an nature.

The 'orld (ie) of a people is their )ay of looing at reality. @t consists of basic assu"ptions and

i"ages that pro(ide a "ore or less coherent though not necessarily accurate )ay of thining aboutthe )orld.

The senses can only recei(e infor"ation )hich is co"patible )ith physical and structural aspects of

the ner(ous syste".

The )orld as dogs percei(e it is 9uite different fro" that of hu"ans , hu"an and canine ner(ous

syste" process infor"ation differently dogs rely on s"ell to a "uch greater e7tent than do hu"ans ,

=)orld s"ell=.

The first re9uire"ent for a )orld (ie) is the presence of an entity ,, discernibly distinct fro" its

en(iron"ent , the +elf.

6 )orld (ie) co"prises i"ages of +elf and of all that is

recognied as not,+elf plus ideas about relationships bet)een the".

10a /orldview The Self

The +elf , an entity discernibly distinct fro" its en(iron"ent )hose presence is the first re9uire"ent

for a )orld(ie).

The particular solution to the ;)ho a" @< proble" that e(ery hu"an group "ust sol(e functions as a

core cultural idea influencing both indi(idual psycho,sociological "echanis"s and social practices

and institutions.

The concept of the +elf consists of t)o aspects:

1 6)areness of +elf as distinct fro" surroundingsD

2 the notion of relationship bet)een +elf and surroundings.The self "ay be coter"inous )ith:

, the body e.g. a 'estern (ie) or



15

, a group such as the fa"ily or the tribe 6frican and 6sian (ie).

Corresponding to a body,bounded self "ay be a na"e as in the 'est.

Gne "a>or distinction a"ong aspects of the self is bet)een:

1 the pri(ate self , an assess"ent of the self by the self

e.g. =@ a" intro(erted= =@ a" honest= =@ )ill buy O=D

2 the public self , an assess"ent of the self by the generalied Gther <Eeople thin @ a" intro(erted=

or =Eeople thin @ )ill buy O=D

3 the collecti(e self , an assess"ent of the self by a specific reference group e.g. fa"ily co)orers

tribe scientific societyD for instance =My fa"ily thins @ a" intro(erted= =My co)orers belie(e @

)ill buy O =.

The sel(es are liely to be co"ple7:

1 the pri(ate self in fa"ilies )hich urge =finding yourself=D

2 the public self in cultures )here fa"ilies e"phasie =)hat other people )ill thin about

you=D

3 the collecti(e self in cultures )here specific groups are e"phasied during socialiation

e.g.=re"e"ber you are a "e"ber of this fa"ily=...=you are a Christian=.

T)o construals of self * independent and interdependentConstruals of the self can be dra"atically different across cultures:

, in F+ standing out and asserting oneBs self is a (irtue ;@t is the s9ueay )heel that gets the

grease<.

, in "any other parts of the )orld Japan China 8orea Eoland standing out often leads to

being punished ;The nail that stics up shall get pounded do)n<.

@n conte"porary secularied 'estern urban )hite "iddle,class cultures the self is concei(ed of as

an autono"ous bounded entity and there is an assu"ption of the inherent separateness of indi(iduals.

@t is i"portant to be uni9ue to e7press the self to realie and actualie the inner self to pro"ote oneBs

o)n goals. Fnder this independent construal of self indi(iduals tend to focus on their o)n internal

attributes , their o)n preferences traits and abilities.Iy contrast "any 6sian cultures neither assu"e nor (alue such an o(ert separateness a"ong people

instead e"phasiing )hat "ay be called the funda"ental connectedness of hu"an beings. The

pri"ary nor"ati(e tas is to ad>ust oneself so as to fit in and "aintain the interdependence a"ong

indi(iduals. !ro" this interdependent construal of self indi(iduals tend to focus on their

interdependent status )ith other people and stri(e to "eet the duties obligations and social

responsibilities.

6"ericans are socialied to belie(e that they are independent autono"ous and free fro" social

influence. !urther they co"e to belie(e that they ha(e preferences and distincti(e attributes and that

they "ust e7press the". 6s a conse9uence 6"ericans are "oti(ated to feel uni9ue and special and to

e7perience positi(e self,feelings and )hen this happens they feel satisfied )ith their li(es.

@n contrast Japanese rather than trying as 6"ericans =to feel good about the"sel(es= are socialied

to be interdependent connected and concerned )ith others and to be constantly a)are ofrelationships. Eositi(e feelings attributed to the inner self are not the pri"ary source of satisfaction in

life.

+0L!,0?6?C0M0?T 6?- +0L!,0!!6C0M0?T

+elf,enhance"ent see"s highly per(asi(e in 6"erican culture: 6"ericans tend to see the"sel(es in a

positi(e light, successes are attributed to factors such as ability and effort that are internal to the self

)hereas failures are attributed to factors such as tas difficulty or absence of good luc that are

relati(ely unstable o(er ti"e and e7ternal to the self. This )ors to protect or enhance self,estee".



1

+elf,efface"ent: the Japanese tend to attribute their successes to factors that )ere either unstable o(er

ti"e e7ternal to the self or both such as the ease of tas luc and the "ental or physical shape of

the self on that particular day. Moreo(er they tend to e7plain their failures pri"arily by a lac of their

o)n effort , a factor that )as internal to the self. +elf,efface"ent "ay be seen as a tactical self,

presentation designed to con(ince others that one is "odest , a desirable trait in 6sian cultures.

There "ay be differences in the "eaning of happiness or general satisfaction in life )hich "ay

deri(e pri"arily fro" oneBs recognition that one has ade9uately perfor"ed the culturally sanctioned

tas of:

, independence in the F + general happiness "ore highly correlated )ith good feelings based

on indi(idual achie(e"ent than those based on close interpersonal relationshipsD or

, interdependence in Japan there )as no correlation bet)een general happiness and good

feelings deri(ed fro" indi(idual or personal achie(e"ent.

The core cultural ideas of a gi(en society gi(e rise to a (ariety of custo"s practices institutions rules

nor"s of the society:

, to appreciate the =natural rights= of each indi(idual eg. The -eclaration of @ndependence

guarantees the protection of certain inalienable rights:. life liberty and the pursuit of happiness.D an

array of legal statutes protecting indi(idual rights., the capacity to "ae oneBs o)n choice: in ?orth 6"erica it is a co""onplace at a party that a host

)ill instruct her guests =elp yourselfQ= the Japanese host )ould do his best preparing and offering

)hat he sees the best possible treat for the guest.

10b /orldview - TimeChrone"ics * Cultures use of Ti"e

Eerception of Ti"e , co"pared )ith space ti"e is a "ore co"ple7 and abstract concept. 'hereas

perception of spatial relations is dependent upon i""ediately sensed infor"ation ob>ect location

body position "otion etc. ti"e as a percept is not so directly tied to ob>ects.

?europhysiologists search in (ain for a sensory organ )ith )hich )e percei(e ti"e. 'e percei(e light

)ith our eyes sound )ith our earsD the organ of e9uilibriu" of the inner ear does not pro(ide us )ith

the perception of space as such but )ith perception of "o(e"ent of our li"bs and body in space and

ti"e. 'e do not percei(e ti"e and space )ith our (arious organs of perception but )e do percei(e

"o(e"ent of our body in ti"espace.

Esychologists and neurophysiologists clai" that )e ha(e internal biological clocs that are the source

of our perception of ti"e: heartbeat respiration intestinal peristalsis the diurnal (ariations of the

le(els of adrenal hor"ones in the blood and the regular (ariations in brain)a(e patterns are e7a"ples

of biological cloc "echanis"s.

@n e7a"ining the te"poral orientations of (arious cultures it is apparent that they i"plicitly consider

one area of ti"e , the past the present or the future , "ore i"portant than the other t)o.

!uture orientation "eans that one thins of future e(ents and conditions that ha(e not yet co"e to

pass "ore than one senses the i""ediacy of e(ents that are actually occurring or than one thins of

past ti"es. This orientation appears for e7a"ple to ha(e been strongly de(eloped a"ong Cal(inists

)ho placed great i"portance on doing good )ors in this life such that they )ould de"onstrate their

place in hea(en in the ne7t. This orientation tends to pro"ote success in business as accu"ulation of

capital is necessary. @t is also co"patible )ith scholastic achie(e"ent in that such a student is "ore

able to resist i""ediate distractions and focus energies to)ard distant goals , good grades degrees

etc.

6 future orientation "ay also ser(e as a palliati(e for po(erty and "isery and as a >ustification for the

status 9uo: =ThereBll be pie in the sy by and by )hen you die=.

Eresent Grientation , in so"e cultures thining about the future is considered to be a )asteful acti(ity

a "anner of idleness an unnecessary ind of drea"ing e(en a ind of foolish ro"antic acti(ity a ind

of acti(ity engaged in by strange or e(il people. To the +panish,6"ericans to "any Latin 6"ericansMediterranean peoples and others the future is see"ingly unreal uncertain and intangible. 'hat

"atter for the" are e(ents and conditions that they are i""ediately e7periencing no) in the present.



1#

Ieha(ior of such people is often "isunderstood by so"eone )ith a future orientation , 6nglos often

ha(e a false stereotype of Latin 6"ericans as unreliable and obli(ious to ti"e as in Latin 6"erica and

other countries )here there is a pre(alent present orientation they are often irritated by failure of

people to eep appoint"ents and to eep the" punctually. !or a future,oriented person a schedule in

the future is in so"e sense a real thing e(en before it occurs. Iut not so for a present,oriented person

)ho "ay be confronted by another i""ediate e(ent de"anding his or her attention )hile en route to

an as yet unreal appoint"ent.

East Grientation * for e7a"ple Chinese culture is strongly oriented to the past for to the" it is the

"odel for the present and the pri"ary source of infor"ation on hu"an society. @t appears in such )ays

as ancestor )orship filial piety a strong sense of fa"ily traditions and an al"ost co"pulsi(e concern

)ith record eeping and history.

T)o general contrasting @"ages of Ti"e:

1 oscillating

2 linear.

These i"ages deri(e fro" t)o different co""on inds of e7periences :

1 the notion of repetition , )hene(er )e thin about "easuring ti"e )e concern oursel(es

)ith so"e ind of "etrono"yD it "ay be the ticing of a cloc or a pulse beat or the

recurrence of days or "oons or annual seasons but al)ays there is so"ething )hichrepeats.

2 the notion of non,repetition , )e are a)are that all li(ing things are born gro) old and

die and this is an irre(ersible process.

Gscillating ti"e , perhaps been the "ost co""on in hu"an societies fre9uently referred to as a

cyclical sense of ti"e but the )ord ;cyclical< i"plies that so"ething is circular and re(ol(es. Iut in

the traditional societies to )hich a cyclical notion of ti"e is usually attributed circular "otion is

(irtually absent. Rotary "otion is ho)e(er one of the "ost conspicuous attributes of "odern

"achines.

The essential feature of this i"age of ti"e is that ti"e is seen as rhyth"ically s)inging bac and

forth. +uch an i"age occurs "ost strongly in technologically si"ple preliterate societies lacinghistoriography in )hich little cu"ulati(e change is obser(able )ithin the life span of an indi(idual.

@nstead e(ents see" to repeat the"sel(es )ith a regular unifor"ity and periodicity. +hort,ter"

oscillating ti"e is replicated in cos"ological beliefs in )hich the )orld or entire uni(erse itself is

sub>ect to cycles of creation and destruction.

Linear Ti"e

Gne indication in the gra""ar of "any @ndo,0uropean languages: in 0nglish for e7a"ple the (erb of

e(ery sentence "ust be e7pressed in a tense of )hich there are three general types: past present and

future. 0(ery utterance in these languages thus "aes a state"ent about an e(ent conceptualied as

e7isting so"e)here in ti"e that e7tends fro" the past into the future.

The essential thing about a linear i"age of ti"e is that ti"e is one,)ay and irre(ersible. !or the

ancient ebre)s ti"e began )ith the Creation and progressed through the e(ents of the Gld

Testa"ent such as the birth of Moses and the 07odus. The early Christians also i"bued )ith this

notion of linear history sa) the co"ing of Christ as a "idpoint in historical ti"e )hich )ould end

)ith his second co"ing Millenniu".

6 )ell,de(eloped linear ti"e i"age is "ost co"patible )ith and "ost supported by "odern industrial

urban society. +ocieties lie this usually ha(e a )ell,de(eloped sense of historyD technological and

social change in the" tends to be rapid and in so"e respects cu"ulati(e.

6 linear i"age of ti"e supported by such conditions is consistent )ith the related idea of progress as

a desired if not inherent aspect of reality. @ndi(iduals are thus a)are that things )ill ne(er again be as

they )ere.

The current scientific "odel of biological e(olution is based on a notion of irre(ersible processes.

6 linear i"age is structurally co"patible )ith a future orientation: since linear ti"e is irre(ersible the past cannot be regained and the present is but a transitory point on a >ourney to future e(ents.



1$

Ti"e de(ices ti"eeeping "ethods are at the core of a "odern pace of life , clocs i"ply a standard

by )hich e(ents "ay be co"pared and ho) si"ilar e(ents "ay be >udged to differ.

6 cloc,bound cultural group see"s to stress ob>ecti(e ti"e for"s "ore than it stresses "ore personal

and sub>ecti(e for"s of ti"e e7periencing. 6 cultural stress on ob>ecti(e ti"eeeping "ay pre(ent

other for"s of ti"e e7periencing fro" finding e7pression. ighly cloc,bound cultures appear to

e7tend the use of clocs into a for" of "ania )hich could be called a =chronophilia=. @n a

chronophiliac at"osphere people (alue cloc ti"e (ery "uch they par (alue accuracy highly and

cherish the order assu"ed to e7ist under such standards.

There appear to be cultural differences in the )ays the passage of ti"e is percei(ed: in the F+ clocs

=run< )hile in +panish 6"erica they =)al= andan.

The disciplining by "anage"ent of )orers to the e7igencies of industrial "anufacturing )as at

heart the instilling of )hat "ight be called a =cloc,oriented= as contrasted to the tas,oriented i"age

of ti"e.

Eolychronic ti"e * doing "any things * so"eti"es )ith "any people * at the sa"e ti"e.

Monochronic ti"e * scheduling things to be done only after one is finished.

10c /orldview - SpaceEro7e"ics * cultural use of space

Eerception of +pace , in the )orld,(ie) the relationship bet)een the en(iron"ental space of a people

and their i"ages of it.

?europhysiologists search for a sensory organ )ith )hich )e percei(e spaceD )e do not percei(e

space )ith our (arious organs of perception but )e do percei(e "o(e"ent of our body in space.

Cultural con(entions for "easuring and "apping space and for indicating directions pro(ide (aluable

clues about spatial i"ages: settle"ent patterns house construction architecture the arrange"ent of

furniture fol dances all in(ol(e action in space.

'e co"part"entalie ob>ecti(e space into ho"e area country continent and into places of )or

public buildings and so on.

Eersonal spaceD Territory

Control of greater territory and space is associated )ith do"inance and status. +uperiors ha(e the

prerogati(e of taing "ore space: they ha(e larger houses estates cars offices and dess and "ore

personal space in body spread.

-istances: @nti"ate Eri(ate @ndi(idual +ocial 0d)ard T. all

=Contact cultures= generally located in )ar" countries display considerable interpersonal closeness

or i""ediacy , people in these countries stand close and touch often.

Eeople in lo) contact cultures in cool cli"ates tend to stand apart

Contact cultures: "ost 6rab countries the Mediterraneanregion !rance Hreece and @talyD Je)s fro" 0urope and the Middle 0astD 0astern 0uropeans and

RussiansD ispanics.

Lo),contact cultures: Iritish 6"ericansD )hite 6nglo,+a7ons the pri"ary culture of the F+ "ost of

?orthern 0urope

+candina(ia Her"any and 0nglandD the Japanese.

Cultures in cool cli"ates tend to be tas oriented and interpersonally =cool= )hereas cultures in )ar"

cli"ates tend to be interpersonally oriented and interpersonally =)ar"=.

The 6"erican +outh

11. imensions of CultureMuch theorising and research has been de(oted to cultural difference in an atte"pt to reduce the

(ariety of its "anifestations to a s"all set of central (ariables usually related to deep culture



1%

underlying (alues )orld(ie)s and )ays of social organisation )hich facilitates differentiation of

cultures "ore fruitfully than on the basis of surface differences dress or food.

6 nu"ber of di"ensions of culture help in differentiating national cultures:

;. #ndividualism-collectivism @C is defined by the e7tent to )hich indi(idualsB beha(iours are

influenced and defined by others:

, indi(idualists prefer self,sufficiency

, collecti(ists stress their interdependent roles and obligations to the group.

'hereas:

, in indi(. societies loosely nit social fra"e)ors , people pri"arily operate as indi(iduals or in

their i""ediate fa"ilies

, in collect. societies tight net/or*s people operate as "e"bers of ingroups and outgroups.

The beha(iors of persons in collect. cult. are deter"ined by cognitions that are related to the sur(i(al

and benefit of their collecti(e. 6 "e"ber of a collect. cult. )ho identifies )ith the group "ay offer

personal opinions by using the pronoun =)e= )hen stating a personal opinion.

Relational beha(iour , deter"ining the rele(ance of others:

, for people in collecti(istic cultures the relationship pre(ails o(er the tasD

, for those in indi(idualistic cultures the tas pre(ails o(er the relationship .

@ndi(idualis",collecti(is" deter"ines ho) people li(e together alone in fa"ilies or tribes their(alues and ho) they co""unicate.

@ndi(. has the status of a national religion in the F+D the best and )orst features of 6"erican culture

are attributed to indi(.:

, for proponents of indi(. that it is the basis of liberty de"ocracy freedo" and enterprise and a

protection against tyranny.

, opponents bla"e indi(. for our alienation fro" one another loneliness selfishness and narcissis".

@n 'estern ci(iliation hu"an beings ha(e tended to)ard self,celebration positi(e or negati(e.

@n Griental thought another alternati(e is represented that of har"ony bet)een "an and nature

possible e7planation of the lo)er heart,attac rates a"ong unacculturated than a"ong acculturated

Japanese,6"ericans.

@n a study ofstede 1%$2 of indi(idualis" in non,co""unist countries the % "ost indi(. )ere: the

F+ 6ustralia the F8 Canada the ?etherlands ?e) ealand @taly Ielgiu" and -en"ar all

'estern or 0uropean cultures 5 of the top are B6ngloB countriesD !rance is 11th Her"any 15th.

The % least indi(. )ere: eneuela Colo"bia Eaistan Eeru Tai)an Thailand +ingapore Chile and

ong 8ong all Griental or +outh 6"erican cultures.

Collecti(ists tend to:

1 subordinate personal to collecti(e goalsD

2 be concerned about the results of their actions on "e"bers of

their ingroupsD

3 share resources )ith ingroup "e"bersD

4 feel interdependent )ith ingroup "e"bersD

5 feel in(ol(ed in the li(es of ingroup "e"bers.

@ndi(. gi(e priority to personal goals o(er the goals of collecti(es.Collecti(ists are )illing to fight and die to "aintain the integrity of the ingroup usually the fa"ily yet

tribe co)orers co,religionists and "e"bers of the sa"e political the state under threat

'hereas people in collect. cult. "ay suppress both positi(e and negati(e e"otional displays that are

contrary to the "ood of the group because "aintaining the group is a pri"ary (alue

people in indi(. cultures are encouraged to e7press e"otions because indi(. freedo" is of para"ount

(alue.

Child,rearing patterns are unlie in collect. and in indi(. cult.:Earents in collect. cult. stress

obedience reliability proper beha(iorDEarents in indi(. stress self,reliance independence and

creati(ity.

07posure to other cultures e.g. through tra(el or because of social heterogeneity increases

indi(idualis": the child beco"es a)are of different nor"s and has to choose his or her o)n standard

of beha(ior.



2&

Co"petition tends to be interpersonal in indi(. and

intergroup in collect. cultures:

Conflict fre9uently found:

, in fa"ily relationships in indi(. cultures and

, bet)een fa"ilies in collecti(ist cultures.

Collecti(. are not as effecti(e in "eeting strangers as indi(. "anipulation and e7ploitation ofoutgroups is co""on in collect. cult. 'hen co"peting )ith outgroups collecti(ists are "ore

co"petiti(e than indi(idualists e(en under conditions )hen co"petiti(eness is counterproducti(e.

Conflicts arise in all culturesD ho)e(er there are cultural differences in )hat people percei(e as

=cause= of conflict:

, in LC indi(. cult. people usually interpret the source of conflicts as instru"ental in nature: people

can argue o(er tas,oriented issues and re"ain friendsD

, in C collect cult. people see conflict arising fro" e7pressi(e sourcesD because the person and the

issue are not separated it is difficult to ha(e open disagree"ent )ithout one or both parties losing

face.

-ealing )ith conflict:

, Eeople in indi(. cult. prefer direct style such as do"inating controlling andSor solution,orientation.

, Eeople in collect. cult. prefer indirect styles of dealing )ith conflict that allo) all parties to preser(efaceD they tend to use obliging and s"oothing styles of conflict resolution or a(oid the conflict

altogether.

An impact of #C on the nonver(al (ehavior :

1 Eeople fro" indi(. cultures are co"parati(ely re"ote and distant pro7i"ically.

Collect. cultures are interdependent and as a result they

)or play li(e and sleep in close pro7i"ity to one another.

unters and gatherers li(ed apart in indi(. nuclear fa"ilies.

@n agricultural societies the interdependent e7tended fa"ily began to li(e in close pro7i"ity in large

fa"ily or tribal units.

Frban,industrial societies returned to indi(. nuclear fa"ilies and lac of pro7i"ity to oneBs neighbors

friends and co)orers.

2 8inesic beha(ior is synchronied in collect. cultures , )here fa"ilies )or together "o(e"ents

schedules and actions need to be highly coordinated.

@n urban cultures fa"ily "e"bers often do their =o)n thing=

)oring and playing eating and sleeping on different schedules.

3 Eeople in indi(. cult. s"ile "ore than in collect. cult.:

, indi(idualists are responsible for their relationships and their o)n happiness )hereas

, collect. people regard co"pliance )ith nor"s as pri"ary (alue and personal or interpersonal

happiness as a secondary (alue.

@n indi(. cultures people e7change co"pli"ents "ore fre9uently than in collect. culturesD they "eet

people easily and are able to cooperate )ith the" e(en if they do not no) the" )ell.

@n collect. countries )here traditional social ties bet). e7tended fa"ily "e"bers continue to e7ist

people ha(e less of a need to "ae friendships: oneBs friends are predeter"ined by the social

relationships into )hich one is born. o)e(er in the "ore indi(. countries affecti(e relationships not

socially predeter"ined "ust be ac9uired by each indi(idual personally.

4 The song,and,dance styles of a country are related to its le(el of social cohesion and collecti(is":

collect. cult. sho) both "ore cohesi(eness in singing and "ore synchrony in their dance style than do

indi(. cult. roc dancing e"phasiing separateness and =doing your o)n thing= e(ol(ed in indi(.

cult. such as those in the F8 and the F+.

2 +asculinity<femininity M6+

Masculine traits , strength asserti(eness co"petiti(eness and a"bitiousness.

!e"inine traits , affection co"passion nurturance and e"otionality.igh,M6+ cultures endorse: asserti(eness co"petition and aggressi(e successD



21

Lo),M6+ cultures prefer: "odesty co"pro"ise and cooperati(e success.

M6+ societies re)ard financial and "aterial success )ith social prestige and status and attribute

strong character and spiritual (alues to high achie(ers.

@n LM6+ societies a high standard of li(ing is belie(ed to be a "atter of birth luc or destiny.

Countries )ith M6+ sho) high le(els of stress. @n M6+ culture the ratio of )o"en in technical

and professional >obs is lo)D the segregation of the se7es in higher education is high.

The % countries )ith the highest M6+ scores "ost M6+ first: Japan 6ustria eneuela @taly

+)iterland Me7ico @reland Hreat Iritain and Her"any.

The % countries )ith the lo)est M6+ scores least M6+ first: +)eden ?or)ay ?etherlands

-en"ar !inland Chile Eortugal and Thailand.

Most countries are "ore fe"inine i.e. nurturant co"passionate than the F+ and people of both

se7es in the F+ fre9uently see" loud aggressi(e and co"petiti(e by )orld standards.

3 2o/er Distance , E- is defined by the degree of separation bet)een people of (arious social

statusesD E- is the tendency to see a large difference bet)een those )ith po)er and those )ithout

po)er :

, Lo),E- cultures endorse egalitarianis"

, high,E- cultures endorse hierarchies.

igh Eo)er -istance @nde7 E-@ cultures , po)er and influence are concentrated in the hands of afe)..

@n E-@ societies relations bet)een une9uals are for"al infor"ation flo) is for"alised and

restricted collecti(ists tend to be E-@.

@n Lo) Eo)er -istance @nde7 LE-@ societies relations are open and infor"al infor"ation flo)s

are functional and unrestricted.

The % countries )ith the highest E-@ highest first: the Ehilippines Me7ico eneuela @ndia

+ingapore Irail ong 8ong !rance Colo"bia.

The % countries )ith the lo)est E-@ lo)est first: 6ustria @srael -en"ar ?e) ealand @reland

+)eden ?or)ay !inland and +)iterland: 0uropean "iddle,class de"ocracies located at high

latitudes. Latitude and cli"ate are "a>or forces in shaping cultures: in colder cli"ates cultures ha(e to

be "ore tolerant and less autocratic to ensure cooperation and sur(i(alD technology is needed.

E-@ affects the non(erbal beha(ior of a culture:

E-@ countries eg. @ndia and its rigid caste syste" "ay se(erely li"it interaction @ndiaBs

=untouchables=.

8inesic beha(ior differs: in E-@ countries "ore body tension sho)n by the subordinates )ho also

s"ile often in an effort to appear polite and to appease superiors.

Eeople in LE-@ countries are una)are that (ocal loudness "ay be offensi(e to others the (ocal tones

of 6"ericans percei(ed as noisy e7aggerated and childlie.

4 High Conte0t 1HC and !o/ Conte0t 1!C communication

@n igh,Conte7t Cultures CCs China Japan and 8oreaD also +outhern and 0astern

Mediterranean people , Hrees Turs and 6rabs people rely hea(ily on the o(erall situation to

interpret "essages , the e7plicitly spoen "essages can be ellipticalD "ost of the infor"ation either in

the physical conte7t or internalied in the person. ?on(erbal co""unication ?onerbCo" pro(ides the conte7t for all co""unication but people

fro" CCs are particularly affected by conte7tual cues: facial e7pression tensions "o(e"ents speed

of interaction location of the interaction. Eeople fro" CCs are percei(ed as nondisclosi(e sneay

and "ysterious.

@n Lo),Conte7t Cultures LCCs the +)iss Her"ans ?orth 6"ericans and +candina(ians people

rely "ore on the acti(e e7change of o(ert e7plicit (erbal content of "essagesD co""unicated

infor"ation is (ested in the coded e7plicit trans"itted part of the "essageD people fro" LCCs are

percei(ed as e7cessi(ely talati(e belaboring the ob(ious and using redundancies. LCCs are

concerned )ith specifics details and precise ti"e schedules. LCCs particularly the "en rely less on

?onerbCo" .

Eeople in CCs adopt a role,oriented style e"phasising the social roles that the participants hold:

)or "eetings in 0astern countries are (ery for"al by 'estern standardsD interaction is for"al andritualistic.



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Eeople in LCCs use a personal style e"phasising personal identity o(er social position. 6s role

relationships and status differences are less i"portant co""unication is less for"al and often "ore

inti"ate.

5 ncertainty avoidance F6 , the e7tent to )hich a culture prefers to a(oid a"biguity and the )ay

in )hich it resol(es uncertainty:

igh,F6 cultures prefer rules and set procedures to contain the uncertainty.

@n igh,F6 societies fa"ilies groups and organisations tend to be closed to outsiders to stress

co"pliance and obedience to punish error and non,confor"ity and to re)ard confor"ity loyalty and

attention to detail.

Lo),F6 cultures tolerate greater a"biguity and prefer "ore fle7ibility in their responses.

Lo),F6 societies tend to accept outsiders at all le(els stress personal choice and decision "aing

re)ard initiati(e tea",play and ris taingD stress the de(elop"ent of analytical sills.

Countries highest on F6 are Hreece and Eortugal +outhern 0uropean and Huate"ala and Fruguay

+outh 6"erican

The si7 lo)est on F6 are 4 s"all nations ong 8ong @reland Ja"aica +ingapore and 2+candina(ian countries. The F8 is lo) #th fro" the lo)est so is the F+ at 11 thD Her"any is about

half)ay and !rance is 13th fro" the highest.

12. 3alues of CultureValues play a central role in culture. Gne of the definitions of culture is * ;a shared syste" of

perceptions and (alues or a group of people )ho share a certain syste" of perceptions and (alues<.

6 (alue is a conception e7plicit or i"plicit distincti(e of an indi(idual or characteristic of a group of

the desirable )hich influences the selection fro" a(ailable "odes "eans and ends of action.

-esirable (s. desired S Concei(ed (s. operati(e (alues

Balues deter"ine and pro(ide legiti"acy for or sanction collecti(e and indi(idual preferences for

certain states of affairs and "odes of conduct o(er a(ailable alternati(es.B Thus (alues ser(e as a"echanis" of social control.

+yste"s of (alues * the position of hu"an life.

Huilt cultures (s. sha"e cultures <losing face<.

'ithin a culture so"e (alues are "ore i"portant core than others peripheralD core (alues are

stabiliing "echanis"s although they can change slo)ly and )ith difficultyD peripheral (alues

change relati(ely easily. 'hich (alues are core and )hich peripheral (ary across cultures.

alues of 6"erican culture

1. acti(ity and )orD

2. achie(e"ent and successD

3. hu"anitarianis" and "oralorientationD

4. efficiency and practicalityD

5. science and secular rationalityD

. hedonis" and physical co"fortD

#. progressD

$. aesthetic (aluesD

%. e9ualityD

1&. freedo"D

11. de"ocracyD12. e7ternal confor"ityD

13. patriotis" and nationalis"D

14. indi(idualis"D

15. racis" and related group superiority

the"es.

Cultural conflict can occur )ithin a person as )ell as bet)een people , certain (alues can be

apparently contradictory:

, !reedo" and e9ualityD

, the "istrust of bureaucracy but also the tendency to call ne) agencies to sol(e proble"sD

, the inclination to the "aterial the practical the direct eg. prag"atis" * seeing solutions as the

proble" arises a(oiding the theoretical ideological or philosophical syste"s coe7ists )ith the

respect for the spiritual.



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Erotestant ethic:

, 'or is considered a (alue in itself a "oral 9uality F+ ter" ;)oraholic<. Erofessional in itself

one of the )ords of highest praise achie(e"ent )as opposed to the dilettantis" of aristocrats )ho did

not ha(e to )or.

, +elf,control self,restraint especially in the erotic sphereD the belief that refraining fro" the

gratification of the current i"pulse in the interest of future attain"ent is "ore subli"e than li(ing only

for the present.

, Ereference for order and predictability fro)ning on e7uberant spontaneity.

, +uccess should be reached by ones o)n efforts be an indi(idual achie(e"ent * self,"ade "an is a

culture heroD ;rags,to,riches< a cultural the"e.

@ndi(idualis" * ;rugged indi(idualis"<.

@ndependence * self,reliance.

, 07ternal confor"ity * the fear of being different is the do"inant "oti(ation. 6 strong desire of

popularity.

, Co"petiti(eness , the "easure of success is ;being ;the nu"ber one< * being better than others

doing things in a better )ayD Trobriand @slanders do things so they should be good in the"sel(es. as

there can be only one ;nu"ber one< there is a feeling of insecurity.

, Mobility as a correlate of success., Erogress * the belief in progress ensues fro" the orientation to the future fro" the con(iction that

future )ill be better. Iut also the belief that e(erything is transitory hence does not deser(e deeper

in(ol(e"ent. This concept is opposed to cultures )hich (alue sa"eness.

, Cult of efficiency and practicality * seeing 9uic solutions to the technical proble"s * conse9uently

a greater interest in technology than )ith in results funda"ental to "an.

, Ielief in 9uic direct solutions leads to (iolence only in 6"erican culture is ;aggressi(e< a ter" of

appro(al.

, ;o)tois"< * there is a solution to e(ery proble".

, Ielief in education related to the (alue of e9uality since it is assu"ed that e(erybody "ay learn

e(erything.

, The 6"erican nationalis" "ay tae the shape of chau(inis" 7enophobia and ;nati(is"< * anti,

i""igrant attitudes and beha(iors., +en. McCarthy * ouse Co""ittee for Fn,6"erican 6cti(ities the concept that a person idea or

action "ay be un,6"erican. -ecatur * ;our country right or )rong<.

, Racis" * alienation of certain features and transferring the" )holly on to a particular group of

people thus "aing the group a scapegoat for the )hole society. The stereotype of a despised group

beco"es a (alue in itself. ence racist struggles to "ae the despised group fit the stereotype. Racis"

"ost in de"and by the people )ith the least degree of internal security.

, Religion * the traditional religious life of 6"ericans had its origins in the opposition of Erotestantis"

to the clerical corruption of Christianity in the 1 c. @n opposition to the ecclesiastical structure the

6"ericans assu"ed sectarian structure )hich de"onstrated itself in its anti,institutionalis"

(oluntaris". !aith according to 6"ericans should e7press itself not so "uch in asceticis" or

religious obser(ance as in action in )ors in good deeds., Moral orientation * the belief in the e7istence of the binding "oral principles )hich rise abo(e the

current interests.

, Material co"fort * )hen ascetically,oriented Euritan ethic do"inates en>oy"ent of "aterial goods

)as considered a distraction fro" "ans supre"e goal that is sal(ation. Hradually the en>oy"ent of

accu"ulated goods beca"e interpreted as the sign of Hods grace.

alues and syste"s of interactions bet)een (alues can change o(er ti"e both for indi(iduals and for a

society or culture as a )hole.

, Magnani"ity in o"er and in the "odern usage.

, @n the F+ culture presently a shift fro" self,restraint to)ards hedonis".

, Most 6"ericans no)adays prefer safe >ob )oring for the big corporation to being a ;rugged

indi(idualist<.



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, Certain slacening of the absolute (alues such as honesty in fa(or of actual practicing of

hu"anitarian (alues.

2015 - Wstęp Do Kulturoznawstwa - Materiały Dla Studentów

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