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ED 125 008

DOCUMENT RESUME

95a.

CS 501 414

AUTHOR Stewart, Charles J. .

TITLE, vTeaching Interviewing for Career Preparation;INSTIfbTION ERIC Clearinghouse. on Reading and Communication

Skills, Urbana, Ill.; Northern Illinois Univ., DeKalb. ERIC Clearinghouse in Career Education.: SpeechCommunication Association, Falls ChUrch,'Va.

SPONS AGENCY National Inst. of Education (DREW), Washington, %

D.C.PUB DATE 76CONTRACT 400-75-0029NOTE 40p.; Theory into Practice (TIP) SeriesAVAILABLE FROM Speech Communication Association, 5205 Leesburg Pike,

Falls church, Va. 22041- ($1.40 members, $1.50non-mdbbers) ,

,,

EDRS PRICEUESCPIPTORS

ABSTRACTThe purposeof this booklet is to aid high school, and

college instructors in designing and teaching units or courses in thefundamentals of informational and employment interviewing. The theorysection of this work provides a definition of,,related communicationsprinciples, and an analysis of the dynamics of informational andemployment interviewing. Exercises are suggested to demonstrate ostudents their inVolvement in day-to-day interviewing situations and'to increase student awareness o/f the total interview process, typesand uses of interviewing in American society, and the advantages and

, disadvantages of interviewing as an information, gathering technique.Other exercises are,.specifically related to preparaticn forcareer-hunting through practice in the employment interview situation

'and resume writing. (KS)

MF-$0.83 HC-$2.06 Plus Postage.*Career Planning; *Employment Interviews; * ield'Interviews; Higher Educ4fion; *Interviews; *LearningActivities; Question Answer Interviews; SecOndaryEducation; *Teaching Techniques

***********************************************************************,Documents"acquired by ERIC include many informal unpublished *

* materials not available from'other sources. ERIC makes every effort'** to obtain the best. copy available. Nevdrthelessi items of marginal *

* reproducibility are often encountered and this affects the quality, *

**of the microfiche and hardcopy reproductions EPIC makes available* via the ERIC Document Reproduction Service (EDRS). EDRS is not* responsible for the quality of the original daciument. Reproductions ** supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made frcm the original.***********************************************************************

c-

6

IC.

U S DEPARTMENT OF NEAL TNEDUCATION I WELFARE

P1ASTIONAS INSTITUTE OFEDUCATION

THIS OM UM' N t HA) RE EN RE PkO.DUCE° EXAC TL Y AS RE (1,sFLI HUMSHE PERSON ON ORGAN,ZAT.40N (,, .W1,4'A T NG ,, PIa.41 OC s,E,N OR''.`,P ON%STATED DO NOT NECESSARIL r 41 E PRESENT OFFICIAL NATIONAL INST, TUTE OfEDUCATION POSITION OR POL It, Y

TeachingInterviewingfor Career

eparation

Charles StewartPtirdue University 2

.1ERIC

[ERIC

Speech Communication Association5205, Leesburg Pike, Falls Church, Virginia. 2204'1

Clearinghouse on Reading and CommuniCation Skills1111 Kenyon Road, Urbana, Illinois 61801

Clearinghouse in Career Education204 Gabel Hall, De Kalb, Illinois 601/15

ti

O

Speech Communication Association Publications BoardDavid Mortensen, tinM-sity of Wisconsin, Madison, Chairman/Carroll Arnold, Pennsylvania State University/ Rita C. Narelmore, Indiana University, Bloomington.: Russel R. Windes,Queens College. New York,/ William Work, Executive Secretary,Speech Communication Association Consultant Readers:.Robert Goyer, Ohio University/John Muchmore, WilliamRainey Harper tollege

Published July 1076Speech Communication 'Association5205 Leesburg Pike, Falls Church, Virginia 22041ERIC Clearinghouse on Reading and Communication Skills1111 Kenyon Road, Urbana, Illinois 61801ERIC Clearingho e, in Career Education204 Gabel Hall, De alb; Illinois 60115Printe,din the Unit States. of AmericaStaff f:ditor: Kathy S yensT e material in this pu licatjon was prepared pursuant to acon ract with the NationA Institute,of Education, U.S. Depart-men of Health, Education band Welfare. Contractors under-takin such projects under g-overnntent sponsorship areencou aged to express freely their judgment in professional andtechmtcal matters. Prior to publication, the manuscript was

\submi ted to the Speech Communication Association for criticalreview and determination of professional competence. Thispublicittion has met such standards. Points of view or opinions,howev r, do not necessarily represent the official view oropinion of either the Speech Communication Association or-theNation. 1 Institute of,Education.

. _ , .

Foreword

The Educational Resources Information denter (ERIC) is anational information system developed by the U.S. Office ofEducation and now sponsored by the National Institute ofEducation (NIE). It' provides ready access tok descriptions ofexemplary programs, research and development efforts, andrelated information useful in developing more effective educa-tional programs.

Through its network of specialized centers or clearinghouses,each of which is respoisible for a particular educational area,ERIC acquires, evaluates, abstracts, and ludexes current sig-nificant information, and lists this information in its referencepublications.

The ERIC system has already made a' vailablethkiugh theERIC Document Reproduction Servicemuch informativedata, including all federally funded research reports .(,r,Ice 1956.However, if the findings of specific educational researah a\re tobe intelligib to'teachers and applicable to teaching consider-able bodie of to must be reevaluated, focused, translated, and'molded int an e seritially different context. Rather than restingat the point ing research reports readily accessible, NIEhas directed se rate ERIC clearinghouses to commissionfrom recognized au rities information analysis pipers inspec' fic .areas.

In addition, as with all federal educational informationefforts, ERIC has as one of its primary goals bridging the gapbetween educational theory and actual classroom practices. Onemethod of achieving that goal is the develtipment by. the ERICClearinghouse on Reading and Communication Skills (ERIC/RCS)'of a series of sharply focused booklets based on concreteeducational needs. Each booklet provides teachers with the besteducational theory and/or research on a limited topic. It alsopresents descriptions of classroom activities which are related to

4

the described theory and assis s the teacher in putting thistheory into practice.

This idea is" not unique. No is-the series title: Theory IntoPrtret ice (TIP). Several educatidnal journals and many commer-cial textbooks provide teachers with similar aids. The EWEC/R('S booklets are unusual in their sharp focus on an educatinneed and their blend OTbsound academic theory with testedclassroom practices. And they have been developed because ofthe increasing requests from teachers to provide this kind ofservice.

Topics for these booklets are recommended by the ERIC/RCS National Advisory Cliommittee. Suggestions for topics to beconsidered by the Committee should be directed to-the Ganghouse. a/

5

Bernard O'DonnellDirector. ERI(7RCS

.

-Theory

Introduction to InterviewinkEvery year thousands of students complete their formal

educations, search for jobs, and begin careers. Few, especiallyhigh school graduates, have ever taken part in job interviews or'had any formal training in interviewing, for employment or forother reasons. The job search is often frightening, frustrating,and unsuccessful because applicants have vague or. erroneous

- conceptions of the kinds of questions employers ask, the abilitiqand characteristics employers look for,,the information employ-ers provide, the information applicants should bring to inter-views, the kinds of questions applicants should ask; and theinformation applicants should obtain from prospective employ-ers. When ex-students obtain jobs and launch their careers, theydiscover that interviewing skills are required againto get andto give information about tasks, responsibilities, procedures,problems, attitudes, beliefs, products, status reports, clients,customers, or patients. Graduates are thrust into complelc inter-viewing processes for which they have had little training orexperience.

This booklet is designed to aid high school and collegeinstructors in deigning and teaching units or courses in thefuniamentals of informational and employment interviewing.The skills developed in these units and courses will be ofimmeasurable value to high school and college graduates andwill aid them in understanding and handling the many types ofinterviewing situations they will encounter during their careers.

Interviewing &fined. What is an interview? It is more thanconversation because it has -a predetermined and seriouspurpose. This suggests pre-interview planning and a piirposeother than. Mere enjoyment or passing the time of day. Aninterview may involve more than two people (e.g., two membersof a company interviewing an applicant) but never more nor less

6

TEACHING INTERVIEWING

than two parties (e.g., an interviewer party and an applicantparty). The interview is a complex process that is dynamic andongoing and that involves the total makeup of both parties,contains some degree of order or system without being fixed, and; .includes numerous interacting variables. Behavior is inter-

. changedboth parties speak and listen 'and exchange ideas,. concepts, values,.and expectations. Nearly all interviews involveasking and answering questions.

Types of interrieteing. This definition encompasses a Viderange of interviewing activities. Informational interviews in-cludctraining and orientation sessions, surveys, journalistic andpolice investigations, and medical diagnoses. Employment,interviews include Screening, determinate, placement, ap-praisal, and reprimand situations. Counseling interviews per-tain to an interviewee's behavior. Problem-solving interviewsdeal ,with mutually shared problems. Persuasive interviewsinvolve "selling"- ideas, productS, or services.

Interriewing owl Whet' forms of communication. Interviewstend to be less formal and structured than speeches, lectures, andsmall group discussions 4nd more f&rmal- and structured thanconversations. ParticipatiOn by both parties is more equal ininterviews than in speeches, lectures, and small group dis-cussions but less equal than hi conversations. The interview isunique in its emphasis on questions, frequentswitching of roles,need for constant adaptilie behaVior, intimate setting, andtolerated or planned digressions to relax one or both parties or toreduce tension between parties.

Fundamentals of InterviewingImportant: communication principles.. No communication

principle's are unique only to interviewing, but the intimate one-on-one situation tench to magnify important principles. ForeAniple, feedback is more immediate. dnd direct, since helistener may interrupt at any time. Nonverbal communication isvery importantevery action by' either party (raising aneyebrow, frowning, looking puzzled, shifting in a chair) may benoticed and interpreted in a meahingfurway because there arefew physial barriers, such as, distance; furniture, or otherlisteners.

Writers have studied the impact on human communication`ofenvironmental factors (temperature, humidity, attractivenessand architecture of surroundings, and lighting), proximics orone's use and perception of social and persorial space (eatingarrangement and distance between pahies), physical appear-

7

THEORY

ance and dress, gestures, pkture and other body movements,and touch, eye, and vocal behaviors. -

Language barriers may doom an interview, especially if oneor both parties assumes that the intended communication tookplace. Words are merely learned symbols, and each party's totalprogramming (environmental background, education, experi-ences, and perceptions of the situation, of self, and of the otherparty) may alter the meaning and understanding of words. Sincethe only message a person can act upon is the one he or shereceives, the person may act or react in the opposite way intendedby the sender.

, Interviewers must know the principles of motivation:motives, goals, and perceptionsand, when,structuring anddeveloping an interview, muse consider what motivates eachparty to respond and to act.- The interviewer can enhancemotivation. by orienting the interviewee, making the inter-vtewee aware of potential benefits, dealing with the intervieweeas a person, being fair and just, and maintaining good com-munication.

Listening is vital 0 communication and motivation. If .eitherparty does not listen, important ideas and materials will be lostor confused. And if either party perceives that the other party isnot listening', the result may be lessened motivation to listen andto contribute. There are many liSttning problems: viewing -atopic as uni eresting, criticizing a speaker's delivery instead ofhis or her essage, listening only for facts, preparing to answerquestions b fore fully understanding them, allowing attention tobe diverted, listening only to what is easy to understand,allowing emotion-laden voihr,ds to interfere with. listening, andpermitting -personal prejudices or deepseated Convictions to

Eimpair comprehension.Silence is closely related to listening. Many people avoid

silence at any cost, but silence can serve several communicative,fuitctions, positive and negative. It can express agreement or ,disagreement, interest or disinterest; belief or disbelief, con-fidence or self-doubt. One interviewing party may interpret'another party's silkce as exhibiting a Jack of sufficient infor-mation, no sense of urgency to respond, a careful pondering ofexactly what to say,' an avoidance of controversial or sensitivematters, or hesitation to respond to an urotear or complexquestion. Silence is not a voidcommunication is taking place..

Structuriv intei.riews. We can divide interviews into threeparts: opening, body, and Closing. The opening often affects thewillingness of both parties to communicate freely and to re'eal ..

8

4 TEACHING INTERVIEWING

feelings, attatudes, and information: It should.establish rapport,develop a sense of trust between the parties, and orient theintervieWee as to purpose and expectations. There are a numberof "starters" for use, modification, or combination: summary ofthe prohlem, explanation of how the interviewer discovered theproblem, mention of an incentive or reward, request for advice orassistance, referiste to the known position of the interviewee,reference to the person who sent the interviewer, reference to theorganization the interviewer represents, and, request for a.specified period of time. The interviewer selects one or morestarters and adds appropriate verbal and nonverbal behavior.

The body of an interview may be divided according to subjectareas (e.g., background and accetnplishments, intellectualqualities, emotional maturity), functions of roles of the inter-viewer and interviewee (e.g., questions from employer, inforthation on the position, and questions from the applicant), keyquestions .(e.g., what, when, where, who, how, and why), orquestion Sequences, Including the funnel sequence and the

"inverted .funnel sequence. The funnel sequence begins with abroad, open-ended question and proceeds to more closedquestions. It is used when the interviewee knows the subjectmatter and wants to talk. The initial open question poses less of athreat than a closed question, is less prone to interviewer Was,and can relax the interviewee. The inverted funnel vsequencebegins with a highly closed question and proceeds to more openquestions. It may motivate the interviewee to respond _by"priming the pump."

The closing should maintain the rapport established duringthe interview, orient the interviewee as to what will happen next,make no promises the interviewer cannot keep, and prepare for

contacts. False finishes, where.the interview seems to becoming to a close and then continues, should be avoided. Thereare many verbal actions (e.g., personal inquiry, internal legiti:mizirig, appreciation) and nonverbal actions (e.g., hand lever-aging, major leg movement, breaking eye-contact) that occurduring "leave-taking'.' (Knapp, et al., 1973). The closing canreinforce or destroy what was accomplished dtfring the inter;view.

Types and uses of questions. Interviewers have a limitlessvariety or questions at their disposal, but there 'are four'basictypes. The firSt type, is the open question, which gives therespondent considerable latitude in determining the kind;andamount of infor'matiOn to be given: "What happened at the .

meeting last night?'"Ansvvers to open questions reveal what the

9

THEORY

respondent thinks is important and may -c6ntain valuable'information for which the interviewer might not think to ask.Open, questions get the respondent talking and can relax therespondent.

)

The closed question, the second basic type of question, givesthe respondent little or no latitude in determining the kind andamount of information to be given: "Do you strongly agree, agree,have no opinion, disagree, or strongly disagree with thepresident's economic policy?" The interviewer has considerablecontrol over responses, can ask more questions in less time, andcan get to the Spejific information desired.- Answers to closedquestions are easier to replicate, to code, and to tabulate. Thebipolar clol;ed question gives two choices; usually yes or no: "Didyou like the concert last night?" It is useful when the interviewerwants a yes or no answer, but it does not reveal reasons for,degree ef,. or amount of.

Third k the probing or secondary question, which is askedwhen an answer to a primary question or another probingquestion seems suggestible, vague, superficial, incomplete, or inerror. For example: (interviewer) I the election were held today:who would you vote for? (inte ee). Oh; I don't know.-(intervkw/er) Well, if you had to choose between the candidates,who do you think yoi5 would vote for? A respondent May give aninadequate answer* for any of several reasons; for example; therespondent might not understand the question, might think thequestion is irrelevant; or might be unsure about the amount ofi n forniation'desi red. the reflective: probing question reflects theprevious answer to verify the interviewer's interpretation ofthe answer: 'Nou .rnean the free sample actually caused you notto buy. the product?" The mirror or summary question reflectsall or part of an interview to_verify agreements, findings, andinterpretations: "So, we have agreed on the first three points andwill meet next Tuesday afternoon at4:00 after we have discussed°the last two point:4:with our committees ?"

The direpted or leading. queStion, the final basic type ofquestion used by interviewers, literally "leads".the respondent ttogive a particular answer. It may be mild withlittle pressure,"You can meet 'tomorrow, can't you?" or .loaded, "HaVe yoUstopped cheating on your taxes?" Interviewers use directedquestions to sway a person toward a specific action or decision,thobserve the respondent under stress, to provokean unguardedresponse, onto signal that any response is acceptable (e.g., When.was the last time-you girt drunk?). ,

'1 0

6 TEACHING INTERVIEWING

Informational InterviewingPrinNples of transmitting information. Transmitting infor-

mation is a complex process, especially when. a message istransmitted through several persons. Each new transmission iscertaito contain omissions, changes, distortions, or additions.These defects in transmission may result from individualphysical restrictions (memory, ability to listen, ability tocomprehend), role relationships between interviewer and inter-viewee, the physical setting, the aftiount and complexity ofinformation being transmitted, and transmissiontechniques.

There are many waS's to improve information transmission:select 'information that is relevant and meaningful to thereceiver; give information in a systematic fashion; do notoverload the receiver with information; begin with a summary ofmaterials to be covered; use audid-visual ai ; use verbalemphasis and pauses to call attention to im rtant items;

..44ncourage theareceiver to ask questions during th interv'ew; eaware of verbal and nonverbal feedback; summar e frequen ly;repeat important concepts, details, and facts; de n .words andconcepts,that might be misunderstood;.encourage note-taking;use a tape recorder and reduce the number of perSons throughwhich the information is transmitted.

Principles of gathering information:The prOcess of gatheringinformation should progress through a number of stages:1.*Gep&al purpose. Involves two questions: What information is

desired? How will it be tabulated and used?2. Specific objectives. Includes determining short-range and

long 7.range- goals, conducting background research, andpreparing an interview guide, which is an optline-V nt).subtopics to be investigated.

3. Selection of respondents. Entails determining thneeded (and sampling techniques/ and specific qualifiRespondents must have the information needed; musavailable, must be willing to give the information, and must be

-capable of giving accurate, complete information:4. Structuring, the interview. Includes constructing an opening

and closing and selecting the most appropriate'schedule. In anonscheduled interview, the interviewer operates from aninterview guide and prepares no questions beforehand. In amoderately scheduled interview, the interviewer prepares allmajor questions and some probing questions. In a highlyscheduled interview, the interviewer prepares all questionsand asks them in the same words and order during each

numbertions.

11

THEORY 7

interview. In a highly scheduled, standardi2ed interview, theinterviewer prepares all questions and provides standardizedanswer options. The first two scheduleg allow maximumfreedom to probe into answers, to adapt. to different inter-viewees and situations, and to obtain lengthy answers to openquestions. The lak two schedules give the interviewer morecontrol over questions and answers, are easier to Teplicate,have a higher degree of precision and reliability, and obtainanswers that are easier to,code and to tabulate. One or morequestion sequences may be selected.

5. Writing-111e questions. Involves the conkruction of questionsfor the schedule and sequence(s) selected in stage 4. Questionsshould contain language respondents will understand, shouldask for information respondents have, should not be toocomplex or vague, and should be relevant to the stated purposeand topic.

6. Selecting interviewers. Involves several questies:_How manyinterviewersl'are needed? What interrkwine skills andknowledge must interviews Have? Whatpersonal ch racter>istics are required: age ,,race, sex, ethnic bac round,personality?, What role rel4tionship between intervie ers andrespondents is most advantageous, that is, should he inter-viewers be superior to,, equal to, or subordin to to the

1

responde ts?7. Pretestin

sample ofquestions,of data.

the interview' Should be a trial' run with a smallrespondents that evaluates opening and c ing,recording of swers, and tabulating and a alyzing

8. Conducting the inte iews. Should be the result of carefulplanni Respondents expect interviewers to ,be well' pre-pared, t be skilled communicators, to be interested in thetopic, the interview,and thetrespondent, to orient respondents,to be skit ed questioners, and ,to be considerate and polite.

9. Coding, t bulating, analyzing data. The discovery of what'was foun during the interviews and what conclusions arewarranted: If all has gone well, the, process has come fullcircle, anal the general purpose has been fulfilled.

Employrient InterviewingHOW the e nlptoyer sizes-up the,applieant. Thisprocess typically

progresses through several stages:1.'Preliniinary steps. Involves determining the nature of the

position to be filled, requirements applicants must meet

12

41.

"s.

TEACHING INTERVIEWIN("i

(experience, personal qualitiTs, and formal qualifications),and how and where to advertiie the position.

2. (tattering of information on applicants. These pre-interviewdata come from cover letters;i resumes; application forms,

`'letters of recommendation, ,and aptitude tests. Janes (1969)surveyed employers on the kini4of pre-interview informationthey desire and what they look for.

3. The interviewing process. Begins with screening interviews.ththat obtain a general picture °teach applicant and determine.how he or she compares with dther applicants. The inter-viOwer probes into background and accomplishments, intel-lectual qualities, motivation, emoijonal.maturity, and. humanrelations skills; gives inforMation on the position and theorganization; and provides an opportunity for 'the applicant toask .questions. Immediattly after the interview; the inter-viewer w rites' a detailed evaluation of the applicant. Thequestion is, "Should we continue to Cpmiider this applicant?" Ifthe answer is no, a letter of regret isent. If the answer is yes,a determinate interview, the "plant trip," is arranged. Sevjralmerribers of the organization meet and question the applicant-in depth. An evalifation following this interview determineswhether the applicant receives an offer or a rejection notice.Fqr unskilled positions; the screen inginterview serves as botha screening and a determinate interview.Interviewers should follow several guidelines while conduct- .

ing employment interviews. They should let the applicant do thetalking. They should avoid questions that can be answered yes orno, that are answered on the application form or resume, that are-leading, that contain' evaluative responses, that trick theapplicant, or that may violate local, state,- or national fairemployment practices laws. Interviewers, act within most laws(1) if they ask no questions that may reveal- age; race, religion, tethnic hackground, political affiliations, and arrest records, and 5(2) if the Ask no questions of a woman they would nbt ask of a'man. Interviewers should answer all questions honestly andthoroughly. They should provide accurate and pertinent infor-mation on the organization and pOsition. Finally, they should tryto ,eliminate the influence of personal biases-, and prejudices.

Now the (tpplicaill` sizes op the employer. The search fOr asuitable position usually progresses.th rough -four Stages:1. Self-analysis. What does the applicant want in a position?

What does the applicant need 'to be happy' on and off the job:money, -possessions, advancement, feeling of accomplishment?What are the applicant's abilities and qualifications?

)4.3

THEORY 9

.

In Preparation stage. The apilicantshould compose cover MAand resumes carefully; select references who know heapplicant well and can write insightful letters of recom-mendationsearch for openings through all available meanswant ads Ni newspapers, placement centers acolleges anduniversities, employment agencies, and direct contacts; re-view lists of questions asked by employers and phrase ones ofhis or her own.

3. Selection of interviews. The applicant should interview onlyfor positions with organizations in which the 'applicant has asincere interest and for which he or she is qualified; makecarefut note of time, date, and place of interviews; review his'or her background, materials, goals, and interests; learn(werything possible about the organizationhistory, prod-ucts, reputation, benefits, location(s); be aware of currentevents; prepare a schedule of,questions to get complete infor-mation about the position and the organization'.

1. Taking.part in the interview. The importance of appearance'varies from organization to organization and interviewer tointerviewer. The more extreme the applicant's appearance,

. the greater the chance it will affect the interview and his orher candidacy for the position. The applicant should be politeand considerate; answer all questions thoroughly and to thepoint, without attempting ,to "snow" the interviewer; askcarefully Worded, intelligent questions in important areastype of work and supervision, working and living conditions,-type of co-workers, advancement potential, salary, extrabenefits; show -asincere interest in the interview, the position,and the Organization; leave a, favorable personal impression.

14

Practice

Introduction to. InterviewingExercise, 1: Sink or Swim Interviews,Objectirc:, To provide, stUdents withon experience that willintroduce them to the total interview: %opening, closing,

_answers, communication principles and problems,and the need for rfreparation.Exercise:, Divide the class into trios, designating,one student ineach trio as the interviewer, one student as the interviewee, andone student as the observer. The interviewers will have fiveminutes to discover everything they can about their inter-viewees: education, family, hobbies, interests, beliefs and atti-tudes, and so on. Interviewees will respond as they see fit, forexarqple, if a queStion is deemed "none of your business" theyshould say so:Observers will note how interviews were startedand ended, the questions asked, the answers given, evidence ofmotivation (or lack of it), listening problems of interviewermotivation (or lack of it), listening problems of interviewer andinterviewee, nonverbal communication, communication break-dowhs, and problems caused by lack of preparation and inter-viewing experience. At the end of four and a half minutes, teilinterviewers they have 30 seconds to end their interviews. Beginround two immediately, having the students within each trioChange roles. At the end of another five minutes, stop this roundand begin, round three, tiving the students change roles again.Each student should thus have an opportunity to be aninterviewer, an interviewee, and an observer.Discussion: How did interviewers begin and end interviews? If

-openings and closings differed from one round to another, whatmay account, for these differences: different interviewer orinterviewee,' experience from earlier rounds, anxiety level or"stage fright" of the. interviewer, previous relationships betweeninterviewer and interviewee (cloth friends, total strangers,

'15.

i PVACCI('E - 11I

.

casual acquaintances, etc.)? How did, lack f pi-eparation andi{nterviewing experience affect questions a answers? If this

had been a planned interview, what might th interviewers have

downs'? If so; whatifdone during...advance preparation CO m kc t e interviews

effective? Were there communication rea dOwnsseemed to cause them: language harrier* istening .problems,lack Of motivation,. the classroom settin* wit several interviewsgoing on at once, failure to notice no v al communication?

', flow were questibns and answers corTim icated nonverbally?\ What major 'problern's did interviewers c lthey encountered?

flow would they propose to eliminate thes c problemS in .future\ interviews?\ ..

.

nq the day-toZday involve-]xereise 2: I'm an Interviewer and Di n't Itnow I.

. (. trjrctivr: To demonstrate to studit

.

ment in a variety of interview ing-silluati ns.Exercise: Each student will keep a,/ det fled lo of-his or herdyadieone4o-onecommunicatiOn .e peri n es during aseven-day period. Have students disti guts between inter-viewing and noninterviewing dyadic ex riences. The student'slog should note the type of each inte view, its purpose, itsduration, whether he or she was irate viewer or interviewee,techniques used by each party, prob ems ericountered,,liane,outcome. t, ilfg. %Disc,is.ooti. How were interviewing and noninterviewingdya isexperiences similar and different? Which was experienced mostoften? Was it ,difficult to diStinguish between interviewing andnoninterviewing situations? Which types of interviews did thestudent encounter? How were the puiToses of various types of in-terviews similar and different? How long was the longest interview and how short was the shortest? In which situations was thestudent the interviewer? In which situations was the student theinterviewee? Which role did the student enjoy the most? Whattechniques did each. party use in various interviewingsituations?

' How did the situation seem to affect the techniques employed?What problems did the student encounter, and how did he or shehandle these prOblems? . How successful were the student'sinterviews? How can the student account for the unsuccessfulinterviews? ,.

Variations; Have each student keep a detailed log of alcommunication experiences encountered during a seven-da.period: interviewing and noninterviewing dyads, small groups,public speaking, and written communications. Students should

16 .

12 TEACHING INTERVIEWING

compare and Contrast the types of communication experienceswith respect to purpose, duration, roles of participants, tech-niques used, and prObje.ms encountered. .

Exercise 3: Person-to-Person in the Mass Media0/ijuptipi : To make...stpdmts aware of the types and uses of inter-viewing in American society.Ereirigc: Each student will -keep a log of televised interview-ing situations observed during a, Seven-day period. Studentsshould make at least one obserVation during each hour of thetelevision day: 7:00 am to midnight. They should be careful todifferentiate between inWrview,ing and noninterviewing dyadicsituations. The student's log should note time of day, type of pro-gram (news, talk show. commercial message, dramatic pracluc-.t ion, comedy, variety show, etc.), type of interview, its apparentpurpose, and unique interviewing' techniques.Piseqssion: What problems were encountered in differentiatingbetween interviewing and noninterviewing situations? Whattviies of interviewing were observed? What were the apparentOm . of individual interviews and types of interviews? Whatuniqu interviewing techniques were observed? flow were typesof interviews, frequency of ayipearance of interviewing pur-poses, and interviewing techniques affected by time of day andtype of program? flow realistic were the interviews portrayed indramas and comedy programs?.From the student's,observations,how would he or she reactOthis.statement: "The electronic massmedium is little more thanAtvised dyadic communication?"

l'ir riot isms: Each 'student willi-keep a log of interviewing situa-tions and uses observed in all mass mediaradio, television,film, and printduring a seven-day period. Students shouldcompare and contrast the types and uses of interviews by thevarious mass media with respect to purpose and techniques.

Exercise 4: To Interview or Not to InterviewObjcptipc: To make students aware of the advantagiS and cli

advantages of using interviews and questionnaires to gatherinformation.

rc /si : Have the class pick-two or three current issues. Each;student will pick one of these issues and develop a series orquestiqns designed to discover people's attitudes toward andknowledge about this issue. The series o(f questions shouldrepresent a variety of question types. Each student will give onecopy of his or her quest-ions to a friend, nvighbor, or parent to

17

PRACTICE 13

'answer in writing without . the :+tudent being present. The. student will then use.a second copy of these questions in a face-to-

face interview with a friend, neighbor, or-parent.nise,/s.v.mr: What kinds of instruction were necessary whenoxplaining the questionnaire and the 'interview to respondents?how did they differ? What £lifferences, if any, were the inanswer- length. detail, and revelation 'of the respondent'sattitudes about the selected issue? Was it easier to maitivate thequestionnaire respondent .or the interview respondent to help,,with this project? Was it- necessary to-phrase questions dif-

° ferently when using to interviey it stead of a 'questionnaire?:How often did student intervier,s find themselves rephrasingqueqions, probing into answers, arid'wandering from the issue?how did these, behaviors help or hinder interviews? WhichJmeans of gathering information was most' effective: the inter-vie* or the questionnaire? .Whicb was most efficient?

Fundamentals of InterviewingEkercise 1: What Did He Say without Saying It?Object i rr: To provide students with an opportunity to observe all,facets of nonverbal communication in an interview: eye contact.gestures, facial expressions. head movements. body movements,posture. and seating arrangement.Ercri.isr: Pick two students to demonstrate a five-minuteinformation-giving interview. Student A will explain: in detailhis or her hobby or a favorite game to Student B. Send the twostudents out of the classroom for a few minutes of preparation.While they are gone, place fwo chairs several feet apart in thecenter of the room. Tell the r6maining students they are toobserve all nonverbal communication that takes place during thedemonstration interview, beginning with the way the interviewparties arrange their chairs and ending when they havereturned to their regular seats at the end of the interview.bisc,rssion: How did the interview parties arrange their chairs.?How did this arrangement alimet the communication that tookplace? How did nonverbal comMtinication aid in opening theinterview? How- did the interviewer use nonverbal communica---tion to explain the hobby' or game? Were some aspects of thehobby or game explained solely through nonverbal communica-tion? llow did the interviewee use nonverbal communication to

`show interest, to raise questions. to show understanding. toexpress puzzlement? How did both parties use nonverbal

18

14 TEACHING; INTERVIEWING

communication to close the interview? Did nonverbal cuesprecede verbal cues in signalling that the closing was beginning?Which means of nonverbal communication were observed -mostfrequently: eye contactgestures, facial expressions, head move-ments, body, movements, pOsture, seating arrangemenQ Howdid nonverbal communication substitute for verbal comnSunica-.tion, for example, a nod, instead of a verbal "yes"?

, . ,,Exercise 2: Great Language Barrie' .. 0

Objective:, To provide students with experiences.. in handlinglanguage barriers during information-giving and -getting inter-views. ..Exercisc: This exerci'se' involves in-class and out-ol-classinf4rmation-giving interviews and information-getting inter-views. For the in-class interviews, divide the students into pairsaccording to their knowledge about technical or complicatedhobbies, games, or occupations. The interviewer should be an"expert on the subject, and the interviewee should know little ornothing about the subject. The interviewer will have fiveto seven minutes to explain the, hobby, game. or occupation-asclearly and completely as possible. At the end of each interview,the interviewee should -reveal his or her understanding of thehobby. game, or occupation. For the out-of-class interviews,each studentShould contact a person with an occupation he or shewould like to enter upon graduation or further training. Thepurpose of thckie interviesks is to obtain a clear titriderstanding ofthe occupatioM neoessary skills, training, duties, responsibilities,adyancement potential. and so on. Important-byproducts areexperience in " Tal" interviews and knowleAge of an intendedoccupation. At the end of each interview. the interviewer shouldwrite a brief rePort on the information obtained and have theinterviewee rev ieW it for accuracy and thorpughne,ss.Jh'scassion: How did interviewers and interviewees in bothseries of interviews`try to handle potentially difficult languagesituations: technical 'jargon. seldom-used words, common wordswith 'unusual meanings or connotations? How successful werethey? how can we account for the failures to eliminate languagebarriers? In their efforts to handle obvious language problemslikejechnical jargon, did students fail to detect problems created,by common words? How did language barriers affect the abilityof interviewers and interviewees to report accurately andthoroughly the information received? How did students' pre-

, interview knowledge of their chosen occupations help or hinderin eliminating language barriers?.,

19

1

Exercise :3: My Vi(Thjectice: To illusphysical make-upand stereotypesevents.

PRACIICE . 15

wls Not Your View.trate for students how each individual's

and programming.affect fratnes of referenceWayti of viewing people, plaCes, things, and

Exercise: Ask students to take out paper and.pencil and prepareto write down the first meaning or image that comes to mind.upon 'hearing a series of .words or phrases. First, give a §eries,ofsingle words, like game, city, sail, and bOwl. Pause betweenwords to give students time to write what first comes to theirminds :Do not explain Or repeat words. Second, give a series ofdescriptiqns, like British banker, femalevhysical educationmajor, medical doctor, elementary school teacher, and midWest-ern farmer. Pause long enough between descriptive phrases togive students time to describe in detail the images that come tomind. Third. taking one word or phrase at a.time, have eachstudent relate what c.ameito mind upon hearing each of the singlewords and each of the descriptive phrases.Dist. uss Hoc How did meanings and images vary from student-to .

student? Why did specific meaningg' and images come to mind?How were meanings and images apparently affected by -thestuslent's age, sex. race, ethnic group, religion, family back- .

ground, education, geographical background, hobbies, -beliefs,attitudes, and unique experiences? How did students interpretdifferent words with thi/same sound, for example, sail and sale?How did students interpret words with the same spelling andsound, like "bowl" (soup bowl, bowling ball, and football bowlgame)? How might these differing images and impressionsaffect interviews? How can interviewers and intervieweeseliminate or min?mize these communication problems?

ExerciSe 4: Did You Hear That?Ob/ref/cc: To makestuslents aware of listening problemsvid howthey affect interviews.Excreisr!,. Select several controversial topics, one for each, classperiod, and assign or ,have four or five students volunte,q asinterviewers for each period. Interviewers are to discover every-thing they can in seven minutes about the. intetvie"wee's attitudesand beliefs concerning the controversy. The interViewee.(per-haps the instructor is. best).s'hould take a polar position on thecontroversy, insert an occasional invective or profanity, andmaintain a serious attitude toward the topic and the interview.Interviewers "should enter the room one at a *) time their

20

16 TEAcilING INTERVIEWING

interviews will not be affected by earlier interactions. Tape :-record each interview. Following each interview, the inter-Viewer is to write a report on what he or heard during the-interview. -Then the-student is to listen to the recording of theinterview and see how well he or she listened to the interview.'

q, How,' caq,:_tudents acedunt for apparent listening.

problems? Did they tend-to get emotionally-involved, to4want todebate e How did their pre-interview 'positions on thecontroversies affectlistening? Was a favorable attitude towardthe intarvieee's position more or Jess dsitrimental than an'.unfavorable attitude? How did the interviewee's use, of invectiveand profanity affect listening? Was attention divekted by day-dreaming, interviewee nonverbal behavior, on lack of interest inthe topic?Weee interviewers so interested in their next topics orquestion:4 or in challenging interviewee positions that they failedtothear what the interviewee -was saying?

Exercise-5: How tio I Start,This Thing?'0ith'etirc: To introducf students -the functions and :types' ofOpenings in interviews.Exercise: Review with students. the functions of openings: toestablish rapport; to orient the intervieweeas to the purpose and ,

emotional atmosphere of the,interview., and to establish properand effective. role relationships. Resew the types or techniquesof openings: stress that two or more techniques maybe combinedin a single opening. Divide the class in groups of three or fourand provide each group with a hypoth ical interview settinglike the following:1. Nou are to take part in an in-class inter iew on October 12, but

two highly important, time-consu ing projects in other'course; will make it very difficult to prepare for,the interview.You are going to try to convince your interviewing courseprofessor to postpone your in -class interview. '

2 ; You need to have a course assignment clarified, but you have'ftrived at your professor's office just -ten minutes before \another class is scheduled:.

3. You are conducting a door-to-door survey of student attitudestoward final examinations. You are interviewing in a dormi-tory.

Each student will prepare an opening for the hypotheticalsetting he or she has been assigned. At the beginning of the classperiod. the interviewers for a particular setting will leave the,

21

PRAcTIVE 17

room. One interviewer at a time will enter and prneeed with aninterview til the opening is completed. The student will thentake his or h r regular seat in the room, and the next interviewerwill enter a d proceed with his or her opening. When all'openings are completed for a?.,particular setting, discuss thevarious opening 'techniques and combinations, employed. Pro-ceed to the next hypothetical setting and repeat this process.Discooimi: What Opening -techniques and combinations' didinterviewers use? Which "techniques. were dictated by eachsituation? WhiCh techniques and combinations appeared to bemost effective? Which techniques were not employed? How can

Ave account for this?'.What role aid nonverbal communicationplay in the openings? How did interviewers involve intervieweesin their openings?'

Exercise 6: What Comes in Between?Obj(:ptire: To make students aware of question patterns andstructural patterns employed in interviews.Exercise: Select', several sample interviews representing avariety of situations: a survey interview, an employmentinterview, a counseling-interview, a Sales interview, an appraisalinterview, and so on First, have students determine the role(s)questions played in the interviews. If th'e role(s) was major, see ifstudents can identify one or more question patterns, such asfunnel sequence and inverted fimnel sequence. Second, 'divideeach interview into major divisions, for example, opening, body,and closint.-Have students determine the approximate timeandproportion of the interview devoted. to each division. ThiO,where, possible, divide the body of each inter iew into meaning-ful -'parts. Have .students suggest alternati, sequences, divi-sions,and parts ftir each interview.Discussion: What kinds of question sequences were used? What

'difficulties were encountered in identifYinesequences?.How didthe interview situation (counseling, employment, appraisal,

.survey, etc) influence the selection and nature of the-sequences?What difficulties were encountered in-dividing interviews intoopening, body, and closing? How did the interview situationaffect the amount'and pro.vortion .of time devoted to each majordiVision? What parts Were discovered inthe body of each inter-"view? How much did interviewer preference.and, interviewingsituation seem to determine' the structural parts of the body ofeach interview? Ho* might interviewers have structured theirinterviews differently? More effectively?

2?

TEACIONG INTERVIEWING

Exerdse 7: How Do I Shut This-Thing Off?, ..

Objectire: To introduce students to the functions and techniquesof closings in interviews. --

Exerci.v: Review with students the functions closings serve ininterviews: to summarize findings, agreements, arid solutions; tomaintain rapport established during the interview; to make afinal appeal; to reveal what happens next:Review the techniquesof closing interviews and how these maybe combined. Divide theclass into groups of three or four students and provide each groupwith a hypotheticaT interviewing situation., The'Tollowing areexamples:

1. You have been trying to convince your interviewing instructorto postpone your in-class interview because of two highlyimportant and time consuming projects in other courses thatwill make it very difficult to-get ready for the interview. Thedecision id,to try to swap interview dates with 'someone else inthe class.

2. You wanted a course assignment clarified, but you arrived atyour professor's office just ten minutes before another claAs isscheduled. You are told that the assignment cannot 15ediscussed at this time.' "

3. You are conducting a door-to-door survey of student attitudestoward final examinations. You now havethe information youwant from a particular student.,

Each student will prepare a closing for the hypothetical situationhe or she has been-assigned. At the beginning of the class peridd:the interviewers for a particular situation will leave the room. _

One interviewer will enter at a time, take a seat across from theinterviewee and proceed with a closing. The student will thenreturn to his or her regular seat, and the next interviewer will _

enter and proceed with his or her closing., When all closings arecompleted for a particular situation, discuss the various closing'techniques and combinations employed. Proceed to the nexthypothetical situation and repeat this process.Ditie 11 Stii011: What closing techniques and combinations did inter-viewers use? Which techniques were dictated by the situation?Which techniques and combinations appeared to be mosteffective? Which .techniques were not employed? How cap weaccount for this? What role did nonverbal communication play inthe closings? How did interviewers involve interviewees in theirclosings?

2 3

PRACTICE 19

Exerciser8:

What Kind of .Question Was That? , .

Object i rc: To aid students. in learning the types and uses ofquestions. /

Excivise: Prepare a list of twenty nohrelated questions like thefollowing:

1. Tell me about yourself.2. You like close detail work, don't -you?

° 3. Why do you think that happened?4. Go on.5. How old are you?

. 6. *Did you vote i9 the last presidential election?Have students -identify each question in four, ways: open orclosed, primary or secondary (probing), neutral or directed.(leading or loaded), and possibly a special type like bipolar,reflective probe, or mirror. Discuss how differing contexts andinterviewing situations might change the ways in which eachquestion is identified, Have students alter questions verbally andnonverbally to change them from open to closed, primary tosecondary, neutral to directed, and so on. For instance, questiontwo above can be changedyfrom directed to neutral by alteringthe language: "Do you like close detail work?" Question-three canbe changed from a, neutral probing question to a directedquestion by altering vocal delivery: "Go on!" A neutral questionnow becomes a challenge to the respondent's honesty. Finally,have students offer reasons why an interviewer might use each.question on the list.Discussion: Which questions were most difficult to identify?How can we account for these,: question taken out of context,subtle -use of language, no indicatiOn of nonverbal communica-tion, respondents may answer in a variety of ways? What werethe easiest means of altering questions?,How can we determinewhether a question is directed or merely a reflective probe ormirror question? What haS this exercise revealed about thd use ofbipolar questions, leading or loaded questions, and highly closedquestions with standardized answers? Why might an inter-viewer use each question as ,phrased in this exercise? For

. instance, why ask question number two as a directed questioninstead of a neutral question?

Exercise 9: What's Wrong with That Question?Objective: To aid students in understanding and applying- thecriteria for question selection and usage.

24

20 TEAcii1N0, INTERAREwING

Exercise: Prepare. a list of unrelated questions, and provideinformation concerning interview situation and location duringthe,,interview. For example:,1. Are you 'familiar with the proposals of ERA? (the first

question in an attitudesurvey on the proposed Equal RightsAmendment)

2: That wasn't a good reason to qtlit aob, was it? (a probingquestion in an employment interview)

,21.3. What. 'Is your 'definition or euthanasia? What comes to mi-nd. when-you-hear euthanasia mentioned? (first two questions in

an attitude survey on euthanasia)What are your reactions to the abortion case now going on inBoston? (question , during an attitude survey on legalizedabortion)

5. Do you obey the speed limit,(A) most of the time, (b) when con-venient, (c) seldoni? (question during a survey on drivinghabits)

Have students,ohdentify what is wrong with each qUestion andrecommend hoiOthe alestion ca be altered to meet criteria forquestion selection and usage. For instance,' the first questionabove assumes the respondent. knows what ERA stands for. 'Italso asks for a simple yes or no answer, which would revealnothing about the extenti&f tilt respondent's familiarity withERA. A better approach would be to explain what ERA meansand then ask about attitude along an attitude scaleOr, theinterviewer could ask, "What do you know about the ERA?"Discuss/wt.- Which criteria does each question fail to -satisfy?What problems might' occur because of these violations, forexample, inaccurate data, false assumptions; biased answers,meaningless generalizations,. loss of respondent motivation?How can these VioTations be corrected? How do interviewingsituation and location of the question in the interview affect theselection and usage of questions?

Exercise 10: What Kind of Answer Was That?,,,_Objectim: To see if students can identify what is wrong withinterviewee responses and provide appropriate secondaryquestions.Exercise: Prepare a series of questions and-answers that requirefollowup, or secondary questions. For example, an answer may beincomplete, too general, vague, inaccurate, or suggestible. Thequestion may elicit no responSe. The series of questions mightlook like the following:

2 5

..14,

. 1. Intvviewer: "Iftthe election were being held 'today, whor ul4 ,you vote for?"

Interviewee: "Oh, I don't know."

9.Interviewer:Interviewer: "How did yOu like the football game?"Inter 'ewee: "At first lit was quite interesting."Inte ,

3. Inte viewer.: 11How do 'ou feel about the ERA'.Trite .ie..N.;%,'ee: (no respo se)Irderviewer. I.

4. Intervittwer; "What were your favorite subjects in highschool?"

Intervie : "Algebra:"Intervie .1f;

. ,

Have students identify the problerr(s) NViti,Pach artswer,T enhave students suggest appropriate secondary or pro gquestions that might alleviate the problem(s). Do not allow astudent to ask another primary qUestion, even if it is related 'tothe initial question. .

.Discussion: What is wrong with each answer? Is the prOblem thefault of the interviewee or the interviewer? In what ways can thisproblem be attacked?.Ho%might an interviewee respond to eachproposed secondary question? Which responses to secondaryqueStions would gain the i iformation originally desired? Whichwould gain information not originally desired? What new'problems might the secondary questions create?41P -

)

Exercise 11: To Lead or Not to Lead.Objcciire: To make stuquestions on intervieweeExercise: Have'each studefive.minute attitude lurenergy crisis, inflation,neutral with no explicit dstudents prepare a Secondfrom the original scheduloaded. For example, qu

.iSChe(1141(' A

1. Do You, favor or,legalized abortion?

s aware of the influence of directedespases.t prepare a schedule of que'stions for aey on a current issue, such as the

abortion. Each question must beection by the interviewer. Then havechedule by turning several questionse into_directed- questior4 leading ortio,ns might look like the following:

Schedule Jo 1. Do you favor legalized abor-

. don like most people I talkto?

26.

pose

22 TEActlING INTERVIEWING

2. If your unmarried sister or 2.close friend became preg-nant, would you suggest thatshe consider an abortion?

3. What are your feelings aboutfurther legalization of abor-- 3.tion?

If your unmarried sister orclose friend became preg-nant, wouldn't y suggestthat she consider: an abor-tion?Would you suppo t furtherlegalization of a ortion, orwould you suppo t currentlaws that force, , vomen tohave abortions from quackdoctors?

Students should conduct five interviews with each schedule,noting both verbal and nonverbal responses to each question.After all interviews are completed, students should Trite a Qom-yarison of responses and data attaihed by the neutral anddirected versions of each question.hiseu, i : How did differing versions of questions seem toinfluence the amount of data teceivvti? How did differingversions seem to affect the attitudes expressed? Did res-ponses todirected questions clearly lean in the direction providedby theinterviewer? How did differing versions of questions affectwillingness to.answer questions, the communication climate ofthe interviews, and motivation of respondents?

Informational InterviewingExercise 1: I Hope Yon Can Remember All of This.object ire: To make students aware of the difficulties encounteredwhen transmitting messages.Exercise.: Create three paragraphs that deal with an event, place,or person; or have students create them. Include, names, dates,statistics. and facts in each paragraph. At the beginning of thisexercise. ask for volunteers or select four or-five students andsend thern Out of the room. Give copies of one of the paragraphs toeach of the remaining students. Tell them to record whathappens to the information in the paragraph as it is passed orally,and from memory to succeeding students. Bring in the firststudent and tell him or her that you are going to read aloud ashort paragraph. No questions or repetitions will be allowed.When you have read the paragraph, b-ring in a second studentand explain that he op she will receive a brief message from thefirst student and will then pass this information on to the nextstudent. This exercise continues until the last student transmits

27

<S,

PRACTICE 93

the message to the whole class. Discuss what happened to themessage. Take a second 'paragraph, select another four or fivestudents, and give copies of this message to the class. Yourinstructions remain the same except that each Student may askthree simple questions about the message after hearing all of it.Discuss what happened to this message. Take the thirdparagraph and proceed as before except that each informationtransmitter will give the information twice (one repetition) to thereceiver. Discuss what happened to this message.ni.,4-iission: What kinds of materials were deleted from messageswhen they were transmitted froth person to person? How werematerialS altered? What information was added to messages?How can students account. for these deletions, alterations, andadditions? How did askingquestions help or hinder the accurateand complete transmission of message number two? How could.the receivers have made wiser use of questions (e.g., during themessage instead of after the message was completed)? How didthe repetitions of the third message helmor hinder its trans-mission from person to person? How could these repetitions havebeen made more effective? If students were doing this exerciseoyer, what would they do to insure more effective informationtransmission?

Exercise 2: You Will Remember. This!Objecti re: To give students an opportunity to experiment with avariety of methods of transmitting information through inter-views.

k'yerrisr: Prepare several 600 -word messages containing names,dates, statistics, descriptions, definitions, qualifying words likeprobably and maybe, and technical or professional jargon. Give acopy of each message to three or four students. Each is to prepare'a five-L to six-minute interview-designed to transmit this mes-sage accurately and completely to a second party consisting oftwo other students. Interviewers should use all available Means-to transmit information: questions, feedback, outlines, pictures,charts, repetition, verbal emphasis, and so on. At the beginningof%a class period, interviewers and receivers for a particularmessage leave the room. One interviewer and a party of twostudents enter the room for an interview. Upon completiolfof theinterview, the receiving party leaves the room to write down themessage it received. The second interview then begins and theprocess is repeated until all interviewers have transmitted their 'assigned messages. Ech receiving party returns to the class-room and relates the message it received. The transmitted

28

.23 TEAciiiNt; INTRVIEWM;

messages are compared with the original for additions, dele-.tions. and alterations.biscusximc Which interviewer was most successful in trans-mitting the message? How can we account for this? Whichtechniques were apparently most successful? Which seemedleast successful? Which aspects of the messagestatistics,names. dates, technical jargon, qualifying wordswere mostdifficult to transmit accurately and completely? Now can weexplain this phenomenon? Which unused techniques could haveaided in transmitting these materials?

Exercise 3: The Case of the Reluctant RespondentObject/Pr: To provide students with a challenging experience ingathering information through extensive use of secondary orprobing questions.

isc: Di vile-the class into groups of five or six and preparefor eah group a different "case" consisting of facts and testi-mony abodt an incident: disaster, murder, lawsuit, accident,happening at school, and so on. .The cases should be approx-.imately two or three single-spaced, typed pages and include avariety of facts and testimony, some of which are contradictory.Provide students 'in each group with a brief deseriptiO setting,for their case. For example, the settinglor a case dealing with-tik-..scoutmaster's actions during a disaster that Struck a scoutcampout might look like this:

Several years Itg6 a natural disitstcr' struck a Roy Scout campnear El i.tabeth,Tennessee. Local residents have now written tothe Baker 'tier() Fund. Commission urgi nglhat Rex Ira ram beawarded its silver medal for his actions (Luring the disaster.The Commission has sent you to Tennessee to interview a personwho has collected facts and statemepts from several residents.(Kerr. -19t 2)

nese riptive settings should not include any important or reveal-ing information about the case. Only the instructor should knowthe details. Each student should first prepare an interview guidecontaining areas and subareas of information he or .she thinksought to be probed. Afte?.a guide is roughed out, the _studentshould prepare a moderately scheduled interview. One case, willhe used each day. At the beginning of class, the interviewers forthat day should leave the classroOm. One interviewer will enter ata time, conducta seven-lninute interview, and then go to a roomwhere he-or she will write a brief report basedon the informationreceived. The interviewee should be absolutely honest but should'

29.

25. _..,

, ..

give only the information asked for _in each question. Broad,open-ended questions, like "Tell me all about it," should beanswered in a simple: general sentaire: The class will have theopportunity to observe stweral different approachges to gettingthe same information, from the same interviewee, about thes. arr case. When all interviews for the day,ate completed, theinto. .iewers Will relurn to-the- classroom.and read their briefrepo- is on the case to show, the information they received. Theinstructor will then reveat any information not brought outduring the interviews: ., .,Discussion: How can we explain the remarkable success of someinterviewers and the relative failure'of others: the interviewguide, schedule olquestiobs, probing into answers, phrasing ofquestions, patieneeto stick with atrarea Vail all information wasobtained, organization: ability to identify important areas ofinformation, communication skills, ability to adapt and to alterthe original guide and schedule? What Was the major problemthat confronted interviewers: the reluctant interviewee, the timelimit. pre-interview assumptions, the difficulty of the case? Whywas some information rarely or never obtained? Did the inter-viewee unintentionally mislead the interviewers?

Exercise 1: What's Your Opinion?.

Objecti ye: TO provide students with an experience in preparingand conducting a highly scheduled interview.Exercise: Have each student select a current focal, national, orinternational issue and research it. Each student should thenprepare a highly scheduled interviewing instrument for a ten-minute interview. The instrument should include an opening, allquestions to be asked, answer spaces or options, land a closing.Require a variety of questions, like the following: two openquestions, one directed question, three closed questions withstandardized answers, one bipolar question, and two moderatelyclosed questions. Divide the class into three groups. Triads willbe formed for each of the three rounds of interviews.

_During_ Round 1, Group A will be interviewers Group Brespondents, and Group'C critics. Stop the interviews at the endof ten minutes and have each member of a triad evaluate theinterviewer with -a standardized critique forM. Round 2 willbegin as soon as all evaluations are completed. Group B willprovide the interviewers, Group C the respondents, and Group Athe critics. Repeat the above process, and then conduct a thirdround so all students have been interviewers, respondents, andcritics. After all interviews are completed, students hand

26 TE.:AcitiNG

in the interviewing instruments containing the informationreceived during their\ interviews. Interviewers receive two'evaluations and grades, one for the oral interviews deterininedby ayeraging student critiques and one for the interviewing,instrument.Discussion: 'If some questions and options required explanationsby interviewers, how could this have been avoided? How didrespondents react. to directed questions? Did bipolar questionselicit bipolar answers? How did respondents. answer openquestions? What problems did interviewers encounter withnote-taking? How did the highly scheduled instrument affectverbal and nonverbal communication? How was the atmosphereof this interview situation similar to and different from that ofmoderately schedUled interview situations? How did lack ofopportunity for probing into answers affect the outcome of theseinterviews?

Exercise 5: Do You Have a Pencil?Objrciicr: To make studentS aware of the problems and tech-niques of ndte-taking durinwinterviews.E./Twist': Arrange to have two or three 10-minute informationalinterviews conducted in front of the class. The class and theparticipants should focus attention on note-taking techniquesand the apparent effects of note-taking on communicationbetween the interviewing parties. Interviewers should takeadequate notes for accurate and thorough reports on the infor-mation obtained during the interviews. The interviews shouldcontain a variety of questions, including very open questions. Atthe end of each interview, have the interviewer give an oral reporton the information received (from notes and memory) to see if heor she was successful in gaining and recalling information.Discussion: What note-taking techniques did interviewersemploy? Which of these interfered most (and which least) withcommunication between interviewer and respondent? How didnote-taking affect the smooth flow of the interview? How muchtime was consumed by note-taking becauSe the interviewee

.hesitated to go on when the interviewer was writing, because oneor both parties talked slower to aid note-taking, or because theinterviewer did not ask another question until the notes werecompleted? Was there evidence of interviewee curiosity aboutwhat the interviewer was writing? How was nonverbal commu-nication affected by note-taking? What techniques can aid inmaintaining good communication while taking notes?

rkArricE 27

Exercise 6: May I Record.This?Objectice: TO provide students with an opportunity to use a taperecorder during gathering and analyzing data froth informa-tional interviews.Exercise: Have each student prepare a highly scheduled inter:viewing instrument for a fifteen-minute interview with astranger or slight acquaintance. Require a variety of questions:open-ended, directed, closed, closed with standardized answers,bipolar, and so on. The student must record the interview andassure that the quality of the recording would be adequate forplaying excerpts to a class or radio" audience. When the inter-view is completed, the student must transcribe the tape, analyzethe data from the tape and transcription, and write a repo" onexperiences during the interview, transcription, and analysisstages of the assignment.Discussion: How .did interviewees react to student requests forrecorded interviews? How did the tape recorder affect verbaland nonverbal communication during the interview? Whatproblems did students encounter when trying to maintain a goodquality recording, a smooth flow of questions and answers, andgood verbal and nonverbal communication? What prtiblems didstudents have with their tape recorders? How did studentsprepare before'their interviews to lessen or to eliminate recorder,problems? How did students try to assure a good qualityrecording? Did they succeed? What'problems were encounteredin transcribing infortnation from tapes? How can these beeliminated? How did the recordings and transcriptions aid indata analysis?

Employment InterviewingExercise 1: Here's My Resume.Objectice: To provide students with an opportunity to prepare a,personal resume and to have it evaluated by an employer.Exercise: Have students read the,,Harold D. Janes article, "TheCover Letter and Resume" rPersonnel Journal, which relatesemployer preferences for length and content of resumes andcover letters.Discuss and criticize sample resumes from text-books, pamphlets, and students. ThiS reading and study should

,prepare students to develop their own resumes suitable forpositions they wish to attain now or in the fulitire. Each studentshould firesent a typed copy of his or her resume to a prospectiveemployer and meet with this person to discuss the strengths and

32

28 TEACHING iNTERviEwIN6

weaknesses of the resume. Encourage students to re'ise theirresumes to remove the weaknesses noted by employers.Disciissimc What major problems did.students encounter ;luringpreparation of resumes? What strengths and weaknesses, didprospective -employers point ,out? flow were "employer viewssimilar to and different from those foudd in the Janes study?flow did employer.desires differ from institution' to institution:retail stores. schools, industry. governmentagencies, law offices,hospitals?

Exercise 2: So You're Interested in a Position with Us?Ofijectirc: To provide students with realistic experiences asemployment interviewers and applicants.E.rcreisc: Each student should prepare two copies of a jobdescription, including name of organization, its location, theposition or positions to be filled, requirements such as age,education, and experience, and perhaps some information aboutthe organization and its benefits. Each student should alsoprepare two copies of a resume and two job application forms.The instructor should prepare interview sign -up sheets that listall student employers and two interview periods for each. On agiven day', students will shop among the job descriptions andPick out two for which they would like to apply. They sign up forinterview times with student employers and give each employera resume and a completed application form. A student critic willbe assigned to each interview. The interviews should be ten tothirteen minutes long. Several interviews may take place at thesame time. Grades will be determined by averaging critiques ofapplicants and employers prepared by the applicant, theemployer, and the critic at the end of each interview.Diso/ssio: flow were. interviews structured, and which struc-tures seemed most successful? What were the strengths andweaknesses of -employer questions? Were interviews propor-tioned adequately, that is, was there enough time for employer'squestions, information about the job and organization, and.applicant's questions? What were the strengths and weaknessesof aPplicantquestions? What major. .problemsdid employers andapplicants encounter?

Exercise 3: You Can't Ask That!Objective: To, aid students in understanding what kinds ofemployment .questions are violations of fair employment prac-tices -legislation and why.

33

1

1:ItAcTic I.: 29

1:W/risc: Prepare a series of questions employers might askduring interviews. Include legal and illegal questions in randomorder. Be sure illegal questions pertain to age, sex, religion,political affiliations, race, ettric background: relatives, andarrest record. Ask one student to serve as an applicant; theremaining students will act as judges; and you, the instructor,will be a prospective employer. If .a student judge thinks aquestion is. illegal, he or she can stop the interview and Challengethe employer, The student must explain why the question isillegal and of fera rephrasing of the question to make it legal.Repeat this exercise two or more times with different series ofquestions and applicants of different sex, race, ethnic back-ground. and so on.

Dim.lession: Which areas of potential discrimination appearedmost often: age, sex, religion, political affiliations, race, ethnicbackground, relatives, arrest record? Which appeared leastoften? How can students explain these observations? WhichViolations of fair employment practices legislation are mostlikely to be accidentalnot intended by the interviewer? Whichviolations are most easily detected? Which illegal questions weremost easily rephrased into. legal questions? Which apparentviolations are or should beallowed under special circumstances?Were violations more noticeable if the applicant was female,black, or an obvious member of an ethnic group? If a personinterviewing a student for a job asks questions not allowed byfair employment practices legislation, how should the studentdeal with this situation?

Exercise 4: Welcome to Our Home Office.Objcctire: To introduce students to the entire selection processwith emphasis on determinate interviews.Excicisc: Select three or four students to serve as applicants.Divide the remainder of the class' into groups of four or five. Eachgroup will then become employees of ,a specific organization:Ford Motor Company, Sears, Continental Grain, General Hos-.pital, Montgomery County Schools, and- so on, Each studentshould take on a specific role for his or her organization, such as

- screening interviewer, personnel director, sales manager, schoolsuperintendant, director of research, plant manager. A studentapplicant is assigned to each organization and provides thescreening interviewer with a resume and a completed applica-tion forni. The organization provides its applicant with adetailed job-description containing the organization's name, its

31C`i

,30 TEACII.INGINTEM.,;IEWINC;A

location, the position or positions open, reqUirements, and someinformation about the organization and its benefits. During thefirst day or two of the assignment, screening interviewers con-duct ten- to thirteen-minute interviews with their assignedapplicants. The remaining employees (to serve as determinateinterviewers) should _not be in the room to hear their applicantbeing screened. Between the initial interviews and the deter-minate interviews, screening .interviewers should transmitevaluations of their applicants. to their "home offices." One 35-40minute determinate interview will be conducted during each ofthe next three or four class periods: Vary the formats. Forinstance, on one day .have all the employees of an organization(minus the screening interviewer) interview the applicant as acommittee. On another day have the applicant remain in theroom while various interviewers come and, go, each spendingabout ten minutes with the applicant. On a third day have theapplicant taken out of the room after each interview and thenbrought back in for the next interviewa simulation of beingtaken from (Mice, to office. 'Disenssin: What were the major differences between screeningand deterniinate interviews? What problems were encounteredin coordinating screening and determinate interviews? _What.problems seem to be unique to determinate interviews? How canthese be lessened or eliminated? What were the strengths andweaknesses of 'determinate interviews andinterviewers? Whichdeterminate format seemed most effective? Which seemed leasteffective? What .are other possible formats -for determinateinterviews?

Exercise 5: A Visit with a Personnel DireCtorObject i re: T6 get students involved in real -life interviews. and tointroduce them to personnel directors' views on employeeselection.

,Exercise: Have each student make' an appointment with thepersonnel director or hiring officer of an organization for whichhe or she would Mee to work in the tuture. Students should obtainand complete an application form and prepare a cover letter andresume. They should submit all of these materials to their inter-viewees prior to the interviews: During their interviews,, stu-dents should probe into the interviewees' training, experiences,interviewing methods, ,and. the hiring process of the inter;viewees' organizations. Students should ask for comments abotitthe application forms, . cover letters, and resumes submittedprior to the interviews. ^ '

PRACTRT 3I .

,

bisctissioo: What kinds of training and experience do pec-sonnelofficers tend to have? What,,Mehhods do they use? How are theseaffected by training and experience, organizational policies,.andthe" types, of jobs offered: teaching, supervision, sale's, assembly

orihline. and so on? What materials are used in the selevti .process:resumes. application forms, letters of recommemiatio .ptitudetests, screening interviews. determinate interviews? W at role,

-does each play in the evaluation and selection Of applicants?What were the strengths and weaknesses of the tinaterialssubmitted prior,to each interview?

e

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01.

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