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Unit 1 - OverviewDESCRIPCIN DE LA ASIGNATURA (Tomado del Programa de la asignatura)

Prctica de la traduccin 1 es una aproximacin integrada a la traduccin del ingls al castellano a partir de textos noespecializados. Tiene como propsito que conozcan el planteamiento terico y tcnico que acompaa al ejercicio de latraduccin y desarrollen competencias traductoras mediante la prctica y la aplicacin de los conocimientos aprendidos en5

clase. Si bien el enfoque es eminentemente prctico, tiene una vertiente terica que se ofrecer por medio de lasexplicaciones de clase. La vertiente prctica estar basada en la traduccin de textos de manera individual y grupal.

OBJETIVOS GENERALES

Quienes aprueben este curso podrn (i) comprender textos escritos en lengua extranjera de un nivel idiomtico intermedio,en relacin con las unidades temticas que se presentan, (ii) realizar la transferencia del texto original al castellano,10utilizando correctamente las equivalencias lxicas y morfosintcticas correspondientes.

OBJETIVOS ESPECFICOS

- Comprender las ideas expresadas en el texto original en el idioma extranjero a travs de la lectura, del anlisis y de ladocumentacin.

- Investigar el significado del lxico y estructuras contenidas en el texto original y encontrar la equivalencia15correspondiente en castellano.

- Reconocer el significado de los trminos claves que registren los textos tratados.- Identificar, analizar y resolver problemas de traduccin- Usar los equivalentes lxicos y morfosintcticos en la lengua de traduccin.- Reconocer las estructuras morfosintcticas: los tiempos verbales, los regmenes preposicionales de los verbos y utilizar20

sus equivalentes en lengua materna.- Reconocer los aspectos tericos bsicos en torno a la traduccin.

CONTENIDOS

Los contenidos se ensearn a partir de textos cortos (100 a 200 palabras) de dificultad idiomtica moderada, contenidos enpublicaciones con temas de carcter general.25- La traduccin: definiciones y conceptos. Etapas del proceso de traduccin.- Grados de fidelidad al escritor del texto original. Contexto y registro.- Etapas de la Traduccin: anlisis, documentacin y transferencia.- Conectores y su equivalencia.- Lxico especfico de los temas tratados.30

INTRODUCCINEn el rea de la traduccin e interpretacin, al igual que en otras reas asociadas a los oficios o las artes, nos encontramoscon personas que se desenvuelven en nuestro mbito profesional sin tener las herramientas tcnicas adecuadas ya sea porque dominan LT (lengua trmino) y LO (lengua origen) como es el caso de los hablantes nativos bilinges o de losespecialistas en diferentes reas de un conocimiento o ciencia en particular (el fsico que lee y traduce textos de fsica35avanzada).

Los traductores profesionales, en cambio, somos profesionales tcnicos, lingistas especialistas en lenguaje y en lassociedades y culturas relacionadas con l; nos dedicamos a mejorar constantemente nuestras habilidades para comprenderLO y expresar en LT.

Para este constante perfeccionamiento y para traducir de manera ms eficaz y precisa/fiel necesitamos una metodologa40bsica que cada uno de nosotros ir complementando o modificando de acuerdo a su propia experiencia.

DEFINICIONES DE TRADUCCIN La traduccin es el proceso de convertir un texto de un idioma a otro. Es decir, traducires examinar un texto original escrito en lo que se conoce como "lengua fuente" y escribir un texto equivalente en otro idioma,llamado "lengua meta", con el objetivo de mantener el tono y el significado del texto original. Los traductores distinguen latraduccin de la interpretacin, que consiste en la traduccin oral de un discurso. (www.universidadperu.com).45

Traducir es enunciar en otra lengua lo que ha sido enunciado en una lengua fuente, conservando las equivalenciassemnticas y estilsticas. (G. Yebra, Teora y prctica de la traduccin)

La traduccin consiste en reproducir en la lengua terminal el mensaje de la lengua original por medio del equivalente msprximo y ms natural, primero en lo que se refiere al sentido, y luego en lo que atae al estilo. (E.A. Nida, La traduccin:teora y prctica)50

Segn Vinay y Darbelnet, pasamos de una lengua A a una lengua B expresando una misma realidad y para Seleskovitch,realizamos un acto de comunicacin en el que transmitimos el sentido de los mensajes.

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Nida y Taber afirman que debemos reproducir, mediante una equivalencia natural y exacta, el mensaje de LO en LT; otrosautores plantean que realizamos un proceso comunicativo en un contexto social; que la traduccin es un acto transcultural ouna ecuacin cultural y que los traductores somos los operadores culturales; que el proceso de traduccin se relaciona con55la comprensin y reexpresin ms que con la comparacin de dos lenguas.

M. Larson establece que la mejor traduccin es aquella que usa las formas idiomticas que son naturales y caracterizan aLT, que comunica al hablante nativo de LT el mismo significado que entienden los hablantes nativos de LO y que mantienela misma dinmica del texto original, es decir, con la que los receptores de LO y LT responden de la misma manera.

Estas definiciones muestran la complejidad que encierra la nocin y prctica de la traduccin y nos permiten identificar sus60rasgos caractersticos: texto, acto comunicativo y proceso cognitivo.

PROCESO DE TRADUCCIN No es posible considerar la traduccin desde un enfoque puramente lingstico, tampoco esposible centrarse de manera exclusiva en la relacin entre las distintas culturas. En el mbito de la traduccin convivenestos conceptos que conducen a una visin unilateral, como afirma Witherspoon:

65

If we look at culture from a linguistic point of view, we get a one-sided view of culture. If we look at language from a cultural point ofview, we get a one-sided view of language

Si observamos la cultura desde un punto de vista lingstico, obtenemosuna perspectiva unilateral de la cultura; si observamos la lengua desdeun punto de vista cultural, obtenemos una visin unilateral de la lengua.

Para poder describir los procesos mentales de la traduccin, es necesario dejar temporalmente de lado los mecanismosindividuales de las microactividades y analizar el proceso de traduccin como un todo. James S. Holmes, estudioso de latraduccin, propuso un enfoque mental de los procesos de traduccin, que denomin mapping theory y que sintetiza en laidea siguiente:

Entiendo que, en realidad, el proceso de traduccin se realiza en varios niveles: al traducir trazamos mentalmente un esquema70del texto original y a la vez otro del tipo de texto que deseamos producir en el idioma de destino. Aunque la traduccin seefecte de frase en frase, nos apoyamos en dicho concepto estructural, de modo que cada frase de la traduccin no estdeterminada slo por el original, sino por los dos esquemas, el del original y el de la traduccin que vamos creando.

As, el proceso de la traduccin debera considerarse como un sistema complejo en el que comprensin, procesamiento yproyeccin del texto traducido son partes interdependientes de una misma estructura.75

METODOLOGA BSICA

1. Leer atenta y cuidadosamente el original. Se refiere a que analizamos el texto; lo leemos y buscamos el estilo delautor, del texto, a quin va dirigido (nuestro pblico objetivo) y los problemas que nos presentar el texto al momentode traducirlo. Este primer paso nos permite determinar el tipo de herramienta que vamos a utilizar: glosariosespecficos, diccionarios generales y de especialidad, enciclopedias, manuales, etc.80

2. Investigar el tema. Este paso marca la diferencia profesional en nuestro producto trmino. Para esto contamos condiferentes herramientas, por ejemplo, Internet, diccionarios, glosarios, enciclopedias, estudio de casos, artculos,especialistas (fuente de origen), clientes, lo que se le ocurra.

3. Traducir. Aplicamos nuestra habilidad, nuestro saber hacer para resolver los problemas de traduccin que sepresentan. El saber hacer se relaciona con el conocimiento operativo que, fundamentalmente, se adquiere con la85prctica (competencia traductora)

4. Reposar. Es conveniente tomar distancia, desvincularnos absolutamente del texto, as, las dudas se aclaran y llegannuevas ideas.

5. Editar. En esta etapa debemos leer nuestro producto para detectar errores tcnicos (gramtica), para mantener unaunidad de cuerpo (redaccin), para aplicar formato de manera homognea (presentacin) y para determinar nuestros90aciertos en la resolucin de problemas.

Deberamos comparar nuestro texto con el original para eliminar omisiones y para resolver dudas de comprensin, deconcordancia y para ser fieles a la realidad textual y comunicacional del texto original.

DICCIONARIOS Y AFINES Son nuestras herramientas de trabajo, con ellos realizamos la actividad bsica de nuestraprofesin que es la documentacin e investigacin y ampliamos nuestro vocabulario para mejorar nuestra competencia95traductora.

Los usuarios no profesionales caen en la trampa de usar la primera acepcin que nos da el diccionario, debemos analizar elcontexto en el que se presenta la palabra para acotar la bsqueda y determinar la mejor acepcin para ese contexto.

El diccionario es una herramienta que nos permite garantizar que nuestros registros de vocabulario personal son precisosporque:100- Nos entregan la ortografa y pronunciacin correctas del trmino.- Nos acopian informacin gramatical de la palabra (plural, gerundio, adjetivo, etc.).- Nos dan el significado(s), adems de sinnimos y antnimos.- Nos proporcionan ejemplos de la utilizacin de la palabra (entregan el trmino en contexto).

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PASOS DE LA TRADUCCIN105

- Leer el original de forma general- Aclarar palabras desconocidas o que presten duda- Redactar la primera versin- Leer la versin- Corregir la versin110- Escribir la versin final (Copia)- Insertar materiales pictricos o grficos

- Corregir la copia final- Comparar la traduccin con el original

Para hacer una buena traduccin se debe leer el texto para tener claro el tema central, las palabras claves y los problemas y115la estructuracin general del texto.

No es til leer exhaustivamente, ni detenerse en los detalles mnimos, esta primera lectura permite adquirir una visin globale ir de lo general a lo particular.

Antes de empezar a escribir, debemos utilizar nuestras herramientas de consulta para encontrar las equivalencias de laspalabras claves y de las que nos hacen incomprensible el contenido general.120

Es ideal comenzar a escribir sin interrupciones para no perder la conexin de ideas que se han captado. Debemos redactarlo mejor posible desde el principio. Con el fin de lograr una buena redaccin desde el inicio sin perder el hilo, podemos dejaralgunos espacios en blanco o poner destacadamente las palabras tentativas para buscar, posteriormente, las palabras quems nos acomoden.

Despus, hacemos la primera revisin confrontando la traduccin con el original para as asegurarnos que hemos cumplido125 con los requisitos bsicos de la traduccin (traspaso fiel de todas las ideas utilizando el lxico adecuado para el pblicoobjetivo).

Con esta primera versin corregida, nos desvinculamos del original y luego leemos nuestra traduccin como si laestuviramos viendo por primera vez. Es bueno leerla en voz baja con la expresividad, entonacin y puntuacin que el textopresenta para detectar construcciones deficientes, problemas de concordancia, redundancias, omisiones y aciertos.130

La relacin lgica entre pensamiento y lenguaje indica que mientras ms amplio sea nuestro lenguaje mejor y ms neta sernuestra traduccin.

LECTURA/ANLISIS DEL TEXTO La primera etapa en el proceso traductor es la etapa de la comprensin (anlisis,exgesis, decodificacin) que consiste en leer atentamente el texto origen para extraer su contenido y valor expresivo paraluego realizar su reformulacin en LT que constituye la segunda etapa.135

En ambas etapas, comprensin y reformulacin, como traductores debemos tener competencia lingstica en los idiomas detrabajo y conocer la cultura tanto del autor como de los receptores. En el caso de los textos tcnicos o de especialidad esabsolutamente necesario documentarse, durante todo el proceso, en ambos idiomas

Debemos intentar ser los mejores lectores del texto puesto que debemos ser el vnculo entre el emisor y sus receptores;realizamos la transferencia y comprensin de informaciones, opiniones, detalles, diferencias entre personas, lenguas y140culturas.

En una primera lectura nos familiarizamos con el texto como un todo, con los temas que aborda y con sus caractersticas;identificamos los posibles problemas que pueden ser (i) textuales (lxico, conceptos desconocidos, citas, refranes, siglas,ambigedades) y que se resuelven mediante el uso de las herramientas de consulta y (ii) extratextuales (motivo y funcin dela traduccin, especificidad del lector, las distancias culturales) donde debemos aplicar la competencia traductora.145

Al comprender el texto cada elemento, textual y extratextual, adquiere significacin y una funcionalidad especfica que surgede su relacin con los dems

COMPETENCIA TRADUCTORA La competencia/habilidad/destreza traductora segn Lowe, se refiere a las caractersticasque trazan el perfil ideal de un traductor: (i) comprensin lectora en LO; (ii) capacidad redactora en LT; (iii) comprensin del

estilo de LO; (iv) dominio del estilo en LT; (v) comprensin de los aspectos sociolingsticos y culturales de LO; (vi) dominio150de los aspectos sociolingsticos y culturales de LT, y (vii) velocidad

Pym la relaciona especficamente con el uso y dice que es (i) la habilidad para generar distintas opciones para el textooriginal y (ii) la habilidad para seleccionar slo una relacionada con el fin especfico y el destinatario.

RESUMEN DE TCNICAS DE TRADUCCIN

Prstamo - Es una palabra que se toma de una lengua sin traducirla y que pone de manifiesto un vaco lxico en LT, por155ejemplo, conceptos o trminos tcnicos nuevos como chip, bulldozer y taxi. Se emplea como equivalente lxico para unconcepto que no existe en LT. En general, cuando se emplea como equivalente de nombres propios se agrega un conceptoque lo aclara, por ejemplo El Loallega al mar El ro Loallega al mar, El pumahabita en las cumbres de Nahuelbuta Elpumaes un animal/felinoque habita en las cumbres de la cordillera de Nahuelbuta.

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Calco - Palabra o frase extranjera que se traduce literalmente e incorpora en otra lengua, ej., week-end fin de semana.160football sera un extranjerismo, ftbol un prstamo y balonpi un calco. Muchas veces al calcar un trmino caemos enun error de traduccin, por ej., the problem challenges the ingenuity of the artist.

Traduccin Literal - Traduccin palabra por palabra. Se puede aplicar como tcnica cuando no es necesario cambiar laforma de LO para traspasar el mensaje de manera natural en LT, por ej.: The cat is on the chair El gato est sobre la silla.Se presenta como problema de traduccin cuando no se logra expresar naturalmente en LT, por ejemplo, al mantener la165forma y no traducir o adaptar los pasivos del ingls se obtiene un texto comprensible pero poco fluido, calcadoestructuralmente de LO.

Transposicin - Cambiamos la categora gramatical de la palabra o de parte de la oracin, es decir cambiamos su funcin,por ejemplo, verbo por sustantivo, sustantivo por preposicin (ej. Emisor por De), al igual que en resto de las tcnicas, stapuede ser obligatoria o facultativa (por razones de estilo), un ejemplo clsico de transposicin (obligatoria) es traducir los170gerundios de ttulos del ingls (ing).

Modulacin - Cambiamos el punto de referencia, el punto de vista, la perspectiva, la categora cognitiva, por ejemplo, deabstracto a concreto, causa por efecto, parte por el todo, cambio geogrfico. Tiene que ver con categoras de pensamientoms que con categoras gramaticales. Todas las tcnicas anteriores se aplican para los solucionar problemas estructuralesque presentan dos sistemas lingsticos, en la modulacin sumamos el factor cultural y lingstico. Por ejemplo, cambio de175voz activa a pasiva (del espaol al ingls), en textos cientficos y tcnicos, por ejemplo, el ingls opta por un lenguaje mscercano a la realidad y el espaol elige las formas ms cultas derivadas del latn o griego (wind speed indicator anemmetro; color blindness daltonismo; wormlike - vermiforme)

Equivalencia -Al establecer una equivalencia transmitimos la misma situacin con una estructura y estilo completamentediferentes, traducimos una frase por otra distinta, excuse me permiso / perdn. Un ejemplo extremo es el caso de los180

proverbios, dichos y refranes, They are as like as two peas son como dos gotas de agua.Adaptacin - Tambin se conoce como Equivalencia de situacioneso Equivalencia cultural;existe un vaco cultural enLT, la situacin que se describe en LO no existe en la cultura de LT, LT no conoce determinadas imgenes que aparecen enLO, por lo tanto, tenemos que inventarlas en base a otra situacin para naturalizar el mensaje, por ejemplo, la conversinde unidades de medida o de notacin musical; los nn tipos de blanco que conocen los inuitas.185

DATOS PRCTICOS Como traductores, trabajamos sentados durante muchas horas y para evitar molestias debemoscontar con:- una buena silla que nos permita estar con la espalda recta y los pies apoyados en el suelo- un atril para el documento- buena iluminacin que no interfiera con la pantalla190- algn objeto que nos permita mantener apoyadas las muecas mientras utilizamos el teclado.

Cuando establecemos un trato con un cliente es preciso que quede claro:- cul es el objetivo de la traduccin, a quin va dirigida y para qu.

- las condiciones econmicas adems de la forma y fecha de pago- el plazo de entrega195- los requisitos de formato o presentacin.

Para poder ponernos de acuerdo con nuestro cliente sobre esos puntos y para entregar un presupuesto adecuado esfundamental conocer el original tanto para tener claro el tema, estilo y potenciales problemas como el formato, stos son losparmetros que tenemos para establecer el plazo de entrega (que se refleja en el costo). La llegada ms importante connuestro cliente se establece al momento de la entrega oportuna del encargo que nos encomend.200

Conectores (texto de apoyo a la redaccin)La causa encaja con el efecto, las consecuencias corresponden a los antecedentes y los diversosprrafos de un escrito se articulan de manera variada y armoniosa.

La oracin simple tiene un solo predicado, es decir, un solo verbo (Mara sali a comprar) y la compuesta tienems de un predicado, ms de un verbo; enfrentamos a dos enunciados que es necesario cohesionar para que205la informacin tenga sentido y esta unin se logra por medio de un conector (Mara sali a comprar y trajo fruta)que se define como un nexo o elemento relacionante entre oraciones, como un organizador textual.

Existen diversas clases de organizadores o conectores textuales cuya util izacin depender del sentido que sequiera dar y de las formas como se vinculen las oraciones en un texto.

Caractersticas:210

- La correspondencia contextual que se busca establecer determina el conector que se va a utilizar.

- No tiene gnero ni nmero, por lo tanto, es invariable.

- Permite organizar las ideas y entregar un mensaje claro.

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- No pertenecen a una categora gramatical determinada, que pueden ser preposiciones, conjunciones,adverbios o pronombres relativos [utilizados para reemplazar a un sustantivo, adjetivo o adverbio que ya ha sido215mencionado anteriormente en el texto (quien, que, cual, etc.)].

Algunos tipos segn funcin y ejemplos

Causa y efecto/causales: en concordancia, porque, por consiguiente, por esta razn, de ah que, puesto que,por lo tanto, pues.

Adversativa o de ruptura: pero, sin embargo, a pesar de, por el contrario, por ms que, por otra parte, aunque,220 aunque.

Temporal:despus, antes, anteriormente, ms tarde, ahora, actualmente, entonces, ltimamente, cuando.

Orden:Sealan las diferentes partes del texto; comienzo de discurso: bueno, bien, ante todo, para comenzar,primero; cierre: en fin, por ltimo, en suma, para resumir/concluir. Primero, a continuacin, luego, finalmente.

Resumen: por dichas razones, en suma, en conclusin, resumiendo, en sntesis.225

Aditivas o Continuativas: tambin, adems, sumando lo anterior, ms an, ejemplo, al mismo tiempo.

nfasis:ciertamente, lo que es ms importante, enfatizando, repitamos.

Concesin:en vista de (esos datos), concedido que, por supuesto, aunque.

Comparativas: Subrayan algn tipo de semejanza entre los enunciados, como, as, de esta forma, de este

modo, ambos, al igual que, del mismo modo, de modo similar/anlogo, como, as como, ms/menos/igual 230que, tan como.

Espacial: a travs, al frente, a lo largo, alrededor, detrs, por el otro lado, entre, debajo, detrs, en el centro.Condicionales: si, como, cuando, con tal que, siempre que, dado que, ya que, siempre y cuando donde no.Conjuntivas: y, sin embargo, a pesar de, no obstante.

Disyuntivas:o, u, ya, bien, sea, que.235

Introduccin: se utilizan para iniciar un discurso o un texto

Adicin/aditivos: se utiliza cuando queremos aumentar puntos al discurso que estamos haciendo. Expresansuma de ideas: y, adems, tambin, asimismo, por aadidura, igualmente, encima, es ms, ms aun, incluso,hasta, para colmo.

Transicin: se utilizan para indicar numeracin o cambio de tema.240

De oposicin o positivos: Expresan diferentes relaciones de contraste entre enunciados.Comparativos: Subrayan algn tipo de semejanza entre los enunciados.

Causativos-Consecutivos: Expresan relaciones de causa o consecuencia entre los enunciados: por (lo) tanto, deah que, en consecuencia, as pues, por consiguiente, por eso/esta razn, entonces, entonces resulta que, demanera que, luego, as que, de tal forma, en ese sentido, enseguida, en efecto, por otro lado, dicho de otro245modo, por ejemplo, en pocas palabras.

Explicativos: se utilizan para explicar o hacer hincapi en algn punto.

De ejemplificacin: como su nombre lo indica, se utilizan para ejemplificar o detallar algn punto del discurso:por ejemplo, as, as como, verbigracia, incidentalmente, en particular, para ilustrar.

De recapitulacin: se utilizan para resumir la idea del discurso o de un prrafo en particular, en resumen, en250resumidas cuentas, en suma, en total, en una palabra, en otras palabras, en breve, en sntesis.

De finalizacin: se utilizan para cerrar el discurso.

De concesin:con todo, a pesar de (todo), aun as, ahora bien, de cualquier modo, al mismo tiempo, aunque,aun cuando, a pesar que, no bien.

De restriccin: pero, sin embargo, no obstante, en cierto modo/medida, hasta cierto punto, si bien, por otra255parte, aunque, sino, en cambio, al contrario.

De reformulacin: El enunciado posterior reproduce total o parcialmente, de otra forma, lo expresado: es decir, o

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sea, esto es, a saber, en otras palabras, para que, con el fin/propsito de que.

De correccin: mejor dicho, o sea, bueno

De transicin: por otro lado/parte, en otro orden de cosas, a continuacin, acto seguido, despus.260

De digresin: por cierto, a propsito, a todo esto.

De certeza: indudablemente, claro, es evidente, en realidad, como nadie ignora, como es por muchos conocido.

List of Connectors1. Linking words for essays, reports, paperslisting265

firstly, secondly ...to begin / start with ..., to conclude within the first place, in the second placenext , then , finally, last(ly)to conclude ...270last but not least ...to summarise , to sum up

adding

also, too, thenfurthermore ...275moreover ...in addition to that ...above all ......what is more ...additionally280

comparingequally, likewise, similarly, in the same, in adifferent waycompared to/with, in comparison withas ... as , both ... and ...285

you cant compare it with ...concluding

all in all..., in conclusion ...to sum up ...I draw the conclusion, arrive at the conclusion290that ...I conclude ...consequently ..

exemplifyingfor example (e.g.), for instance295... such as ...

namely ...clarifyingthat is (i.e.)that is to say300

resultAs a result ...consequentlyhencetherefore305thus

as a resultbecause of that ...-thats why ...

reformulating310to put it another wayin other words

alternativeon the one hand... , on the other hand ...

contrasting315on the contrary

in contrast to thatbut , yet, howevernevertheless ...whereas ..., while ...320neither .... nor ...on the one hand ..., on the other hand ...

concessionbesides, however, still, though,in spite of that, despite that325admittedlyif , unless

2. Giving ones own opinionIn my view; To my mind, In my opinion, As I see it,I think that , I believe that , I have come to the330conclusion that,I would not say that ..., Therefore I cannot agreewith ...,I am doubtful whether / certain that ...

According to the text ...335It seems to me that ...

Another argument is that ...As far as I am concerned, ....One reason is that ...

I would say that ...340 As we have seen, ...As we know from ...., ...For all the above-mentioned I would support theview thatIn short ...345With regard to ...It is for this reason that I think ...I am convinced that ...I feel that ...

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Adversativos: but, however, nonetheless, yet, still, on the other hand, instead, instead of, on the contrary350

Causales: because, for, because of, as a result of, due to, owing to, since, as

Comparativos: as, as as , not as as , not so as , just as so , as if, as though Concesivos:although, though, even though, even if, despite, in spite of, not even if, regardless of Conclusivos: therefore,hence, thus, so, consequently

Condicionales: if, whether, unless, provided, providing, as long as, in case, in case of355

Continuativos: then, moreover, furthermore, besides, in addition to

Copulativos: and, not only but also , not only but as well, both and , no sooner thanDisyuntivos: or, either or , neither nor , whether or , else, otherwise

Funcionales: so, so that, so as to, so as not to, in order to

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Fuentes:Lpez Guix y J. Minett Manual de Traduccin Ingls/castellano Teora y prctica

Trics Preckler, Manual de traduccin Francs/Castellano

M. Larson La traduccin basada en el significado

Vinay and Darbelnet, Stylistique compare du franais et de langlais365

Hurtado Albir, Traduccin y Traductologa Introduccin a la Traductologa

Meta, XLVII, 4, 2002

Documentos Universidad del Per, de Barcelona y Catlica de Chile.

Fernando Vsquez Rodrguez - En: Caja de Herramientas para la escritura:

http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:LExLPXbHbWQJ:aprendeenlinea.udea.edu.co/lms/moodle/mod/re370source/view.php%3Finpopup%3Dtrue%26id%3D76784+conectores+gramaticales&cd=8&hl=es&ct=clnk&gl=cl

http://www.icarito.cl/

ORELLANA, MARINA. La Traduccin del Ingls al Castellano - Gua Para el Traductor. Editorial Universitaria, Santiago deChile, 1998.

LPEZ GUIX, Juan Gabriel y MINETT WILKINSON, Jacqueline. Manual de traduccin Ingls-Castellano. Gedisa Editorial,375Barcelona, 1997

Problemas lingsticos y extralingsticos en la traduccin de lenguas afines, M. Romero Fras y A. Espa, Universit diSassari: http://www.ucm.es/info/especulo/numero29/l_afines.html

Bibliografa de consulta en biblioteca:Diccionarios generales monolinges (en castellano e ingls) y bilinges380Enciclopedias en castellano e inglsLpez Guix y J. Minett Manual de Traduccin Ingls/castellano Teora y prcticaHurtado Albir, Traduccin y Traductologa Introduccin a la Traductologa

Bibliografa de consulta en lnea:http://www.rae.es/rae.html385http://www.sinonimos.orghttp://www.sensagent.comhttp://www.merriam-webster.comhttp://www.macmillandictionary.com(http://www.linguee.com)390

http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:LExLPXbHbWQJ:aprendeenlinea.udea.edu.co/lms/moodle/mod/resource/view.php%3Finpopup%3Dtrue%26id%3D76784+conectores+gramaticales&cd=8&hl=es&ct=clnk&gl=clhttp://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:LExLPXbHbWQJ:aprendeenlinea.udea.edu.co/lms/moodle/mod/resource/view.php%3Finpopup%3Dtrue%26id%3D76784+conectores+gramaticales&cd=8&hl=es&ct=clnk&gl=clhttp://www.rae.es/rae.htmlhttp://www.rae.es/rae.htmlhttp://www.sinonimos.org/http://www.sinonimos.org/http://www.merriam-webster.com/http://www.merriam-webster.com/http://www.linguee.com/http://www.linguee.com/http://www.linguee.com/http://www.linguee.com/http://www.merriam-webster.com/http://www.sinonimos.org/http://www.rae.es/rae.htmlhttp://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:LExLPXbHbWQJ:aprendeenlinea.udea.edu.co/lms/moodle/mod/resource/view.php%3Finpopup%3Dtrue%26id%3D76784+conectores+gramaticales&cd=8&hl=es&ct=clnk&gl=clhttp://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:LExLPXbHbWQJ:aprendeenlinea.udea.edu.co/lms/moodle/mod/resource/view.php%3Finpopup%3Dtrue%26id%3D76784+conectores+gramaticales&cd=8&hl=es&ct=clnk&gl=cl

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Translation OverviewThe need for translation has existed since time immemorial and translating important literary works from onelanguage into others has contributed significantly to the development of world culture.395

Both ideas and forms of one culture have constantly moved and got assimilated into other cultures through theworks of translators. Ideas and concepts from the East notably India, China and Iraq have influenced theWestern culture since as early as sixth century B.C. when trade ties were first established between India and the

Mediterranean countries. Many medical theories of Plato and Galen of Greece had considerable influence fromthose of India. Many of the philosophical and scientific works of ancient Greece were rendered into Arabic as400early as ninth century A.D. This knowledge spread to Europe via Spain which was a predominantly a Muslimcountry then.

The school of translators of Toledo in Spain established by Alfonso VI of Castile and Leon in 1085 AD wasresponsible for translating from Arabic to Latin and then to Spanish these scientific and technological work whichlater led to the European Renaissance. Despite their key contributions, ancient translators have often remained405unknown or in the background and the credit due to them have not been acknowledged. They have done their

job with painstaking efforts despite many violent conflicts that have dotted throughout history.

Translators have enabled Holy Scriptures like the Bible written in esoteric languages like Latin to be understoodby ordinary people by translating them into more common languages without depending on a few elite priests orthe members of clergy to explain what they contained. Some translators even had to pay with their life for doing410it like the famous Bible translators William Tyndale who was arrested and executed in Holland by the king in1536 for translating the Bible from its original languages into the common vernacular of English.

Chinese monk Xuanzang is supposed to have translated 74 volumes of Buddhist scriptures originating fromIndia into Chinese in 645 AD. One of the earliest recorded translations of considerable effort in English isperhaps the translation of the Bible around 1100 AD.415

British translator Constance Garnett made the translating community proud through her brilliant translations ofRussian classics including those of Turgenev, Gogol, Tolstoy, Chekhov and Dostoyevski in late 19 th century.

Another famous translator is Gregory Rabassa who has translated many Latin American fictions into English. Dr.Arthur Waley is one of the worlds foremost translators of the twentieth century of Chinese and Japaneseliterature into English. More recently Gladys Yang translated many Chinese classics into English over the last 50420years.

Thus translators have made important contribution over the centuries in dissemination of ideas and information

to a larger audience, in shaping of cultures and in a sense helped unite the world. (482).PROOFREADING YOUR WORK By S. Gomez, bilingual translator and interpreter.

Every translators nightmare is to proofread their work. You send a translation to a client and you realize later425that it had a mistake. Or worse, the clients send it back to you marked with so many corrections that it looks likethey bled on your work. Poor punctuation or misspelled words are practically unforgivable.

Every document you translate is a reflection on you and your skills. Some people devote only a few minutes toproofreading, hoping to catch any obvious errors that jump out from the page, but a quick job, especially afteryouve been working long and hard on a translation, usually misses a lot.430

Here are a few tips to make your translation as close to perfect as possible:

Take a break between writing and proofreading. Set the document aside for at least 20 minutes or longerwhenever possible. Go for a run. Get a bite to eat. Watch a movie. Approach your writing with a clear headso you can look at the translation fresh.

Proper lighting is essential.435

Use spell-check wisely. Word-processing programs have spell-checkers that will catch most but not ALLspelling errors. They might suggest a word that isnt what you want at all. Make sure that your text says thatShes anxious to meethim. And not meathim. Dont rely entirely on spell-checkers.

Print out your work. Youre more likely to catch mistakes looking at a hard copy. The eye tends to scan

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information on a screen, but actually reads it when its on a printed page.440

Break up your tasks. The number of things you need to look out for may overwhelm you. For example, oneproof for spelling, one for type of font and size, etc.

Read the text out loud and slowly, articulating each word as it is actually written. When you read silently ortoo quickly you may skip over errors or make unconscious corrections.

Proof tables and lists separately. Proof the most prominent text separately such as headings, table of445

contents, titles, etc. When proofing a numbered or lettered list, take a moment at the beginning and rundown the list counting each number out making sure that the numbers or letters flow in their proper order.Make sure all headings are formatted identically and numbered properly.

Check spacing, bullets, and tabs. Make sure the tabs line up especially from page to page.

Keep a glossary. Write out proper names and specific terminology on a separata. The proofreading450process becomes more efficient as you develop and practice a systematic strategy. Youll learn to identifythe specific areas of your own writing that need careful attention and try to have a method for finding errorswill help you focus more on translating your text.

Use specific notations. When marking the document, try using proofreader marks. Use colored ink that willpop out at you as you look at the page.455

Know your weak areas. Create a list of the errors you make repeatedly so that you can pay more attention tothem next time you translate something. (531) (~990).

Unit 2 Famous CharactersSaint Jerome - Eusebius Hieronymus, more widely known as Saint Jerome, is universally recognized as the"Father of Translation." Every translator and translator student should understand who Saint Jerome was and460why he is regarded as such.

St. Jerome was from Stridon, Dalmatia, a place that now forms part of Croatia. He was born in the late 300s andlived until the early 400s.

The reason he is regarded as the father of translation, as well as the founder of translation theory, is because hewas commissioned by Pope Damascus in the year 382 to translate the Old Testament into Latin from Hebrew465rather than Greek. This edition of the Bible is referred to as the Vulgate.

In addition to this new edition of the Bible, Jerome translated other less well-known works and wrote many lettersand commentaries regarding his translation work.

In addition to his translation work, he was the forerunner in translation theory. He was alone in his idea thattranslation should be "sense for sense" instead of "word for word."470

This was not a popular theory accepted by translators at the time, especially biblical ones. It's a lesson that alltranslators should be reminded of today. (201)

Malintzin. - Harlot, Heroine, Translator and Traitor?Cultural Background

The word Aztec is believed to stem from the name Aztln, an allusion to the original homeland of the Aztecs. Some475scholars believe this land lies in today's northern Mexico, extending north to the southwestern United States and to Utah.

Others trace it back to the primeval migration from Asia. Whatever the source, among the Mesoamerican populations Aztlnwas also equated with a mythical paradise, like Eden or Atlantis, which was considered heaven or the home of their foundinggods.

Doa Marina, La Chingada, La Malinche, Malitzin, (c. 1502 - 1527). No matter what name you use, there is no480doubt that she is one of the most influential interpreters in history and one of the most legendary and importantof the historic figures involved in the Conquest of Mexico.

Slave, interpreter, secretary, mistress, mother of the first "Mexican." her very name still stirs up controversy.

One of the most controversial figures of the Spanish Conquest, the woman known as La Malinche or DoaMarina (ca. 1500-1527?) exemplifies the importance of the interpreter in the course of history. She was born to a485

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noble family, was enslaved, became an interpreter and confidante to the Spanish explorer Hernn Corts, andbore him a son. Some view her as the betrayer of the Aztecs, while others consider her to be a scapegoat forMoctezuma's failure to defend his kingdom successfully.

The woman called "la lengua de Corts" (Corts's tongue, or interpreter) was at birth named Malinalli (Nahuatlfor one of the 20 days of the Mexicatl month, as well as for a kind of grass that can be used to make rope). She490was also called Malinalli Tenpal. The Nahuatl word tenpal means "a person who speaks a lot, with enthusiasmand fluency."

Marina was born into a noble family at a seigniory in Coatzacoalco. When her father died, her mother remarriedand gave birth to a son. Although Marina was her father's firstborn and rightful heir, her mother and step-fatherfavored the new baby. So that the new baby would inherit, Marina's mother gave her away or sold her into495slavery and declared that she was dead. Thus at a teen age, she became the property of the Cacique (ruler orchief) of Tabasco, Marina traveled in captivity from her native Nahuatl-speaking region to the Maya-speakingareas of Yucatn, where she learned that language.

During this period, Hernn Corts had come to the Tabasco coast from Cuba with his interpreter, Jernimo deAguilar, who had learned Maya after being shipwrecked, enslaved by the Yucatecan Maya, and later rescued by500the Spaniards.

Having decided to curry favor with the Spaniards rather than fight them, the Maya gave them food, cloth, gold,and slaves. Besides acting as interpreter, Aguilar, who had himself taken holy orders, helped in the conversionof the Maya. The slave women, Marina among them, were baptized in March 1519. Her age at baptism is not

known.505

Corts gave the baptized women to his military staff. Marina first went to Alonso Hernndez de Puertocarrero,then back to Corts a month later. She soon began to work as an interpreter with Aguilar. When Corts reachedthe Nahuatl-speaking areas farther west along the Gulf coast, she would interpret between Nahuatl and Maya for

Aguilar, who could interpret between Maya and Spanish.

Marina quickly extended her linguistic skills by learning Spanish. She earned Corts's confidence, became his510secretary, and then his mistress, bearing him a son. Corts was often offered other women, but he alwaysrefused them, demonstrating his respect and affection for Marina. He wrote in a letter, "After God we owe thisconquest of New Spain to Doa Marina."

Historians do not consider Marina responsible for the success of the Spanish Conquest. The Spanish appetitefor gold, the smallpox and, of course, the military superiority of the Spanish were major factors. However, her515interpreting skills played an enormous role since she certainly facilitated communication and negotiations

between Corts and various native American leaders, key among them the Tlaxcalans, who were seeking alliesagainst the Aztecs with their brutal demands for human sacrifice and tribute. After an initial armed clash, analliance was forged that brought thousands of warriors to fight alongside the Spaniards.

The high point of her interpreting career was undoubtedly the initial face-to-face meeting between Corts and520Moctezuma, but she was directly involved in numerous exchanges between the Spanish and the many peoplehe encountered and dealt with. She is said to have actively encouraged negotiations over bloodshed. But fromanother standpoint, the fate of the Aztec Empire was sealed in the very first meetings of the emissaries ofMoctezuma with Cortes, when they gave him gifts of gold and silver that Bernal Diaz valued at over 20,000pesos de oro. Prescott, writing in 1947, valued each peso de oro at $11.67 U.S. Dollars. The Spanish appetite525for gold was whetted, making the Conquest inevitable. But had Cortes failed, the next expedition, perhapswithout an interpreter, would certainly have shed more Mexican blood.

Although some have considered her a traitor, many Chicana women consider La Malinche an outstanding

historical figure, one whose denigration and defamation of character parallel their own. She was outcast from herown people, and she owed no allegiance to the other Mesoamerican powers. She did take advantage of her530linguistic skills to secure her own position. But there is evidence that once she was enlisted in the Spanishcause, she was totally loyal to Corts, despite many opportunities to betray him as the convoluted history of theconquest unfolded.

The Mexican author Gmez de Orozco states that La Malinche "was an instrumental part of the Spanishstrategy, interpreting in three languages and providing essential information about economic organization,535knowledge of native customs, the order and succession of kingdoms, forms of tribute, rules governing familyrelations, and so on."

After the conquest Corts, who already had a wife in Spain, demonstrated his respect for Marina by arranging a

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marriage for her with Don Juan Jaramillo, a Castilian lieutenant. Although Marina was just one of many NativeAmerican women to bear children with Spanish fathers, she is the most prominent, and her son by Corts, Don540Martn Corts, was the first mestizo of historical note. He eventually held a position in government, was aComendador of the Order of St. Jago, and in 1548 was accused of conspiracy against the Viceroy and executed.Marina also bore a daughter, Doa Mara, to her husband, Don Jaramillo. As the mother of both a son and adaughter of mixed blood, Doa Marina may rightfully be considered the Mother of the Mexican Nation. (1112)

Moses (flourished 14th13th century BCE)545Hebrew prophet, teacher, and leader, delivered his people from Egyptian slavery and founded the religiouscommunity known as Israel, based on a covenant relationship with God. As the vehicle and interpreter of theCovenant, including the Ten Commandments, he exerted a lasting influence on the religious life, moralconcerns, and social ethics of Western civilization.

According to the biblical account, Moseswhose Hebrew name is Moshe ben Hamram o Mosh Rabenu was550a Hebrew foundling adopted and reared in the Egyptian court. Raised there, according to the biblical account, byhis biological mother, who was hired to be his nanny, Moses came to know of his Hebrew lineage. As an adult,while on an inspection tour, Moses killed an Egyptian taskmaster who was beating a Hebrew slave. Fearing thewrath of the pharaoh, Moses fled to Midian (mostly in northwest Arabia), where he became a shepherd andeventually the son-in-law of a Midianite priest, Jethro. While tending his flocks, he saw a burning bush that555remained unconsumed by the flames and heard a call from the Godthereafter called Yahwehof Abraham,Isaac, and Jacob to free his people, the Hebrews, from their bondage in Egypt. Because Moses was a stammer,

his brother Aaron was to be his spokesman, but Moses would be Yahwehs representative.Ramses II, who reigned 127913 BCE , was probably the pharaoh of Egypt at the time. He rejected the demandof this unknown God and responded by increasing the oppression of the Hebrews. The biblical text states that560Moses used plagues sent by Yahweh to bend Ramses will. Whether the Hebrews were finally permitted to leaveEgypt or simply fled is not clear. According to the biblical account, the pharaohs forces pursued them eastwardto the Sea of Reeds, a papyrus lake (not the Red Sea), which the Hebrews crossed safely but in which theEgyptians were engulfed.

Moses then led the people to Mount Sinai (Horeb), which lies at the southern tip of the Sinai Peninsula. Yahweh565appeared to Moses there in a terrific storm, out of which came the Covenant between Yahweh and the people ofIsrael, which included the Ten Commandments. Moses began issuing ordinances for specific situations andinstituted a system of judges and hearings of civil cases.

After leaving Mount Sinai and continuing the journey toward Canaan, Moses faced increasing resistance and

frustration from the Hebrew people and once got so angry at them that, according to tradition, Yahweh570accounted it as a lack of faith and denied him entrance into Canaan. As his last official act, Moses renewed theSinai Covenant with the survivors of the wanderings and then climbed Mount Pisgah to look over the land that hecould not enter. The Hebrews never saw him again, and the circumstances of his death and burial remainshrouded in mystery.

Tradition states that Moses wrote the whole Pentateuch, but this is untenable. Moses did formulate the575Decalogue, mediate the Covenant, and begin the process of rendering and codifying interpretations of theCovenants stipulations.

In a general sense, therefore, the first five books of the Hebrew Bible can be described as Mosaic. Without himthere would have been no Israel and no collection known as the Torah. (544)

Buddha Gotama(fl. c. 6th4th century BCE, Lumbini, near Kapilavastu, kya republic, Kosala kingdom [India]d. Kusinr,580Malla republic, Magdha kingdom [India])Buddha Gotama (a.k.a. Siddhrtha) was the founder of Buddhism. The term buddha, literally meaningawakened one or enlightened one, is not a propername but rather a title, and Buddhists traditionally believethat there will be innumerable buddhas in the future as there have been in the past and that there are otherbuddhas in other presently existing cosmos as well. The Buddha who belongs to the present era of the cosmos585in which we are living is often referred to as Gotama. When the term the Buddha is used, it is generally assumedthat it refers to the Buddha Gotama.

According to virtually all Buddhist traditions, the Buddha lived many lives before his birth as Gotama; theseprevious lives are described in Jtakas (birth stories), which play an important role in Buddhist art and education.

Most Buddhists also affirm that the Buddhas life continued in his teachings and his relics. The P li Tipitaka,590

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which is recognized by scholars as the earliest extant record of the Buddhas discourses, and the later Plicommentaries are the basis of the following account in which history and legend are inextricably intertwined.

The Buddha was born in the 6th or 5th century BCE in the kingdom of the kyas, on the borders of present-dayNepal and India. Gotama is said to have been born of the king and queen of the kyas, Suddhodna andMahmy. The Buddhas legend, however, begins with an account of a dream that his mother, Mahmy, had595one night before he was born. A beautiful elephant, white as silver, entered her womb through her side.Brahmins (Vedic priests) were asked to interpret the dream, and they foretold the birth of a son who would

become either a universal monarch or a buddha. The purported site of his birth, now called Rummindei, lieswithin the territory of Nepal. (A pillar placed there in commemoration of the event by Aoka, a 3rd-century BCEBuddhist emperor of India, still stands). The child was given the name Siddhrtha (Sanskrit), which means one600whose aim is accomplished. Gotama is said to have led a sheltered life of great luxury, which was interruptedwhen, on three excursions outside of the palace, he encountered an old man, an ill man, and a corpse. Eachtime he asked a servant to explain the phenomenon and was told that all men are subject to such conditions.Gotama then met up with a wandering ascetic and decided that he must discover the reason for the mansdisplay of serenity in the midst of such misery.605

Renouncing his princely life, Gotama went in search of teachers who could instruct him in the way of truth. Hetook up the practice of various austerities and extreme self-mortifications, including severe fasting. Theseexperiences eventually led Gotama to the conviction that such mortifications could not lead him to what hesought.

Buddhist mythology states that the Buddha went to meditate beneath a pipal tree (Ficus religiosa), now known610as the bodhi tree. There he was tempted by Mara (the Buddhist Lord of the Senses), but Gotama remainedunmoved. Later that night the Buddha realized the Four Noble Truths, achieving enlightenment during the nightof the full moon day of the month of Vesakha at a place now called Bodh Gay.

After this enlightenment, the story continues that the Buddha sought out five companions and delivered to themhis first sermon, the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta (Sermon on Setting in Motion the Wheel of Truth), at615Sarnath. An ancient stupa marks the spot where this event is said to have occurred. The Buddha taught thatthose in search of enlightenment should not follow the two extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification.

Avoiding these two extremes, the Thatgata (He Who Has Thus Attained The Truth) discovers the middlepathleading to vision, knowledge, calmness, awakening, and nirvana. This middle path is known as the NobleEightfold Path and consists of right view, right thought, right speech, right action, right living, right endeavor, right620mindfulness, and right concentration. The First Noble Truth is that sentient existence is always tainted withconflict, dissatisfaction, sorrow, and suffering. The Second Noble Truth is that all this is caused by selfish desire.

The Third Noble Truth is that there is nirvanaemancipation, liberation, and freedom for human beings from allthis. The Fourth Noble Truth, the Noble Eightfold Path, is the way to this liberation.

After this sermon the five companions became the Buddhas first disciples, were admitted by him as monks, and625became the first members of the sangha. After the Buddha had trained followers, his mission was fulfilled. AtKusinara (now called Kasia) on the full moon day of the month of Vesakha (May), the Buddha Gotama enteredparinirvnan end to the cycle of being reborn. His body was cremated by the Mallas in Kusinara, but a disputeover the relics of the Buddha arose between the Mallas and the delegates of rulers of several kingdoms. It wassettled by a venerable Brahmin on the basis that they should not quarrel over the relics of one who preached630peace. Stupas were then built over these relics. (878)

Hippocrates Born on the island of Cos off Asia Minor, Hippocrates came from a family of physicians. Laterhe taught at the medical school in Cos, one of the most prominent in the Greek world. Famous in his lifetime, hetraveled around Greece and other lands, lecturing on his principles of medicine. He died in Larissa on theeastern coast of Greece. Hippocrates earned his reputation of father of medicine because he was the first635doctor to identify the causes of disease in nature rather than claim the gods caused them.

In the more than sixty books attributed to him (probably written by his followers), he established careful methodsfor medical treatment. He believed that doctors should simply aid the body in healing itself, and he stressed diet,rest, and a clean environment. These are very modern concepts, but Hippocrates was less forward-thinking inhis belief that diseases came from an imbalance of four humors, or bodily fluids. One of these humors was640blood. Medieval physicians acceptance of this idea would lead to the ghastly practice of blood-lettingthat is, ofbleeding patients to heal them.

One of Hippocrates greatest contributions to medicine was in the area of ethics, or moral behavior, on the part

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of a doctor. The Hippocratic Oath, probably written by his followers, instructs physicians to place the patientswell-being above all other concerns. Medical students today often swear to a version of the Hippocratic Oath,645which can be found on display in many doctors offices. (249)

Euclid Geometry is a branch of mathematics dealing with various shapes, their properties, and theirmeasurements. Though not the father of geometry, Euclid collected all the knowledge gathered by those beforehim and established a system that came to be known as Euclidean geometry. Beyond the fact that he founded aschool of mathematics in Alexandria in about 300 B.C., however, little is known of Euclids life.650

Euclids book The Elements discusses a variety of subjects related to geometry, in particular planes, or flatsurfaces; irrational numbers; solid geometry, which deals with three-dimensional figures such as boxes; andnumber theory, which examines the properties of integersthat is, all the positive and negative whole numbers,as well as zero. The Elements, with its carefully written, understandable style, became a model for mathematicaland scientific works over the next two millennia. Likewise Euclids plane geometry was the onlygeometry until a655number of mathematicians in the 1800s began developing non-Euclidean forms. (160)

Archimedes (Syracuse, Sicily). It is said that while trying to weigh the gold in the kings crown, Archimedesdiscovered the principle of buoyancy. The principle of buoyancy states that when an object is placed in water, itloses exactly as much weight as the weight of the water it has displaced. Supposedly Archimedes made hisdiscovery in the bath and was so excited that he ran naked through the streets shouting Eureka! (I've found it.)660

Physics deals with the physical properties of objects and their interaction with one another, involving factors such

as mass and acceleration. It is a pure science, not dealing with practical matters. Archimedes, on the other hand,put his discoveries to much practical use. Among his most important inventions was the Archimedes screw, adevice for pumping water still used in many parts of the world.

Through geometry, Archimedes proved that a lever, or bar, and a fulcrum, an object it rests against, can greatly665increase the power of its operator. This led to his development of pulley systems and cranes. His creations, mostnotably the catapultwhich Rome later adopted as its ownaided Syracuse in a war against the Romans. He isalso said to have developed a set of lenses which, using the light of the Sun, could set ships on fire.

Archimedes was killed by a Roman soldier when Rome took Syracuse. Known as the father of experimentalscience, the use of models and trials to test scientific principles, Archimedes was also a mathematician. He670came up with the first reliable figure for pisymbolized by the Greek letter which is used in calculating thearea of a circle. Pi, typically rendered as 3.1416, is an irrational number, meaning that there is an apparentlyinfinite amount of digits following the decimal point, with no repeating pattern. In his work with curved surfaces,

Archimedes used a type of mathematics similar to calculus, which would only be developed some 2,000 yearslater. (327)675

Akhenaton c. 1370 B.C - 1336 B.C. Egyptian pharaoh, religious reformer. It takes a truly remarkable person to inspirecontroversy more than 3,000 years after his death, but the Egyptian pharaoh Akhenaton was just such a figure.He attempted a thorough reform of Egypts religion, banning the worship of all gods except Aton, a deityrepresented by a sun-disk. He is often credited as the originator of monotheism, or the worship of a single god.His reign also saw enormous developments in Egyptian art, which up to that time had been stiff and unrealistic.680

Akhenatons religious reformation ultimately failed, however. The Egyptians, horrified by what they consideredhis disrespect for the gods, would remove his name from their historical record. But was he truly the villain hissuccessors believed him to be, or was he a heroic figure, as he has often been regarded in modern times? Werehis religious beliefs sincere, or were they, as some historians have suggested, directed more by circumstancesthan by heartfelt convictions? It is a measure of Akhenatons complex character that these questions are still685

being asked.Amon is pleased It is ironic that the pharaoh who later changed his name to Akhenaton, or Servant of

Aton, should have been born with the name Amenhotep (sometimes rendered as Amenophis), meaning Amonis pleased. Amon had once been worshiped as a separate god in Upper Egypt, but eventually the gods identitymerged with that of Ra, a deity of Lower Egypt.690

Akhenaton no doubt grew up worshiping Amon-Ra, along with a host of lesser deities. He was raised in the royalcourt, first at Memphis in Lower Egypt, and later at Thebes in Upper Egypt. Both cities served as capitals atdifferent times and represented the two Egyptian kingdoms united almost 2,000 years before Akhenatons time.

Akhenaton was born the son of king Amenhotep III and Queen Tiy. His mother, unlike most Egyptian queens,

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was a commonerthat is, someone not of royal blood. At the time of his birth, Akhenatons parents did not695expect him to become king since he had an older brother, Thutmose. But his brother died at a young age;therefore, Akhenaton became pharaoh when he was eighteen years old.

A new religion In the year he became pharaoh, Akhenaton married the princess Nefertiti. It is possible heruled jointly with his father for some time, a common practice in Egypt. For the first four years of his reign,

Akhenaton ruled under the title Amenhotep IV. In the fifth year, however, he changed his name, which is700sometimes cited as Akhenaten, Akhnaten, Akhnaton, or Ikhnaton.

The year of the name changeperhaps 1347 B.C. marked the beginning of a religious revolution that wouldrock the foundations of Egyptian life. Akhenaton declared that Aton was supreme above all gods and renamedhimself servant of Aton. He also declared that Nefertiti would become Nefer-nefru-aton, or exquisite [nearlyperfect] beauty of Aton. The worship of Aton itself was not new. It had begun as early as the time of705

Akhenatons grandfather, Thutmose IV. What was new was Akhenatons insistence that Aton should beworshiped exclusively, or rather almost exclusively.

From the beginnings of Egypt, pharaohs had held the status of living gods. Akhenaton was no different in thisregard. Although he is considered the founder of monotheism, in fact he upheld the tradition of pharaoh-worship,presenting himself as a go-between: the people would worship Akhenaton, who in turn would speak to Aton on710their behalf. His worshipful Psalm to the Blessed Aton is considered one of the greatest works of ancientEgyptian literature.

The Amarna PeriodIt soon became clear that Akhenaton intended to completely reshape Egyptian religion,and thus Egyptian life. He ordered the closing of temples devoted to the gods as well as the seizure of thetemples property. Throughout the land, agents of Akhenaton destroyed statues and removed the names of rival715deities. He even had all monuments to his father defaced, so as to remove the name Amon (also rendered as

Amen) from Amenhotep. As part of his radical revolution, Akhenaton moved the capital to what laterbecameknown as Amarna, along the Nile River almost exactly halfway from Memphis to Thebes. For this reason,

Akhenatons reign is known as the Amarna Period. In his time, however, the city was called Akhetaton, or TheHorizon of Aton. Rather than take his old court with him from Thebes, Akhenaton surrounded himself with an720entirely new group of associates.

In keeping with Akhenatons radical departure from past ways, sculpture during the Amarna Period underwent aremarkable change. Prior to that time, Egyptian artwork had been very stiff and unreal-looking, with the pharaohdepicted as a man twice as tall as ordinary men. Amarna sculptors went in the opposite direction. To judge fromtheir portrayals of their king, Akhenaton was not a handsome man. His hips and thighs were wide, his calves and725

arms skinny, his neck abnormally long, and his stomach flabby. For a time, this grotesque style of representationbecame the norm.

That he permitted such an unflattering depiction of himself says something about Akhenatons complexpersonality.

Sculptors of his time also produced numerous portrayals of Akhenaton and Nefertiti enjoying an ordinary family730life. For instance, one such sculpture shows them playing with their children. Never before had pharaohs beendepicted in such a human light.

The revolution that failed When it came the religion, however, Akhenaton was uncompromising. He seemsto have been unwilling to allow the people to get used to the radical changes he offered. Instead, he demandedthat they accept the new religion all at once. They grudgingly gave in to the new system, simply because he was735pharaoh. Once he died at the age of about thirty-five, though, they went back to worshiping a variety of gods

Aton among them.

Akhenaton had no sons. Of his six daughters, four died during his lifetime. One married a very young princenamed Tutankhamen, who moved the capital back to Thebes and returned to the worship of Amon-Ra.

Akhenaton had meanwhile been branded a heretic.740

Many of his statues were defaced. The Egyptians even tore down a number of the buildings he had constructed.Eventually Akhenaton and the three pharaohs who followed him would be erased from the list of Egyptian kings.(1054)

Confucius Born 551 B.C. -Died 479 B.C. Chinese philosopher. One of the most influential individuals who ever livedwas a minor Chinese scribe and teacher named Kung Chiu. He came to be called Kung Fu -tzu, or Master745

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Kung. He is best known throughout the world by the Latinized version of his name, Confucius. Though he neverprofessed to be a religious leader, a religion later developed around him. Aside from his contemporary Buddha,he remains perhaps the most admired figure in the Eastern world.

Confucius taught a philosophy of mutual respect and social harmony, a belief in shared obligations between rulerand ruled. He stressed the value of education. Out of his teachings emerged a new class of scholar whose750influence in China would grow in coming centuries. Later monarchs would twist his ideas, but the essence ofwhat Confucius taught would remain the foundation of Chinese society more than 2,000 years after his death.

An age of philosophers Confucius lived at almost exactly the same time as the Buddha. Because hisviews related more to human society tan to spiritual life, it is perhaps more important to note that his dates alsomore or less coincided with those of Pythagoras.755

Confucius was born around the time when Thales, father of Greek philosophy, died. Confucius would die justbefore the birth of the man who transformed Western thought, Socrates.

Though the Greeks and Chinese were unaware of one anothers existence, it is interesting that philosophy, adiscipline that seeks to reach a general understanding of values and of reality, blossomed in both societies atabout the same time. Both in China and Greece, the flowering of philosophy did not seem to require a state of760peace; in fact, it seemed to thrive on turmoil. Thus Confucius was born into a land caught up in the Spring and

Autumn Period (722481 B.C.), a time when, despite its pleasant-sounding name, China saw almost constantwarfare between rival states. He was born in the town of Chu-fu, located in what is now Shantung Province innortheastern China. In his time, however, it was the capital of one of those warring states.

A hunger for learningAs with many world-changing individuals, there are legends concerning Confuciuss765birth. For instance, one story tells of how dragons kept watch over his mother as she delivered him. Supposedlyhe descended from Huang Ti, one of Chinas legendary early emperorsnot to be confused with Chin ShihHuang Ti.

Though his family possessed a noble title, the family had no money. His father, seventy years old at his birth,died before Confucius was three years old. His mother was able to give her boy little more than encouragement.770He worked after school to help support her but did not think of quitting school: from the age of fifteen, hedetermined that he would be a great scholar.

Apparently Confucius married at the age of nineteen, then divorced four years later. In the meantime, he hadbecome a teacher at age twenty-two. Perhaps as a result of his own childhood hardships, he believed in offeringan education not on the basis of what a student could pay but on the basis of how much the student hungered775

for learning.Confucius the teacherConfucius believed, as he said, that it is not easy to find a man who has learned forthree years without coming to be good. This idea is similar to Socratess identification of virtue with learning.The two mens methods of teaching shared similarities as well. As with the Socratic dialogue, the Confucianmethod of teaching was based on asking questions rather than on hammer a point home.780

Neither Confucius nor Socrates were merely teachers to their students; they were like fathers and friends tothem as well. Of the 3,000-odd young men who studied under Confucius during his career, the ones most eagerto learn lived with the master and ate and drank with him. They also joked with him; it appears he had a greatsense of humor. He loved to hear his students tell a story about a man who had described him (Confucius wasapparently rather odd-looking) as having the downcast appearance of a stray dog.785

Confucius and Socrates both favored the spoken word over the written word. Each left no writings of his own.The famous Analectsand other Confucian Classics, were actually compiled by students. Also like Socratesor

at least, the Socrates of Platos RepublicConfucius believed that an education in music was essential forcultivating a well-developed mind.

Principles of a good societyA significant difference between Confucius and Socrates, however, lay in their790attitudes toward their personal contribution to society. Whereas Socrates saw himself as an outsider in thesociety of Athens, Confucius had an interest in influencing the political life of Chou Dynasty. He shared with theSocrates of the Republic, as opposed to the real Socrates, an interest in establishing the best possible politicalstatea realm in which men of learning would lead.

Looking around him at the problems of his times, he saw princes who thought only of their own interests and not795of the people as a whole. Therefore he sought to influence the princes through a new corps of civil servants with

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a strong training in morals. Because morality and education went hand in hand, he believed, it was necessary tofocus on learning. But learning had another purpose as well: in a world of crafty, self-serving princes, it was bestfor the scholar to know as much as he could.

Socrates would later say that he knew nothing, but that he helped others formulate ideas of their own. Confucius800was similarly humble, as befit his image of the proper scholar.

He claimed that he had thought of nothing new, but rather had recombined old ideas. Though this was far fromthe case, it is true that the Confucian social philosophy was based around a new interpretation of two old

concepts in Chinese thought: li or ones proper place in society; and jen, which might be described as innervirtue or conscience. It is very hard to find English equivalents for either term, since both are deeply rooted in the805Chinese culture.

In any case, someone who developed a proper awareness of bothjenand libecame mature. He became whatConfucius described as a gentleman, orchun-tzu. Confuciuss ultimate goal, through cultivating scholars, wasto raise up a generation of rulers possessing both jen and li. Only when all people, from the top down,appreciated their place within the fabric of social life, could there truly be peace and happiness in the world.810(1113)

Vlad the Impaler (1431-1476) As you may well know, author Bram Stoker (1847-1912) based thetitle character of his 1897 novel Draculaon an actual human being, or should we say inhuman being and in thearticle herein we will try our best to make the distinction between the real and the imaginary, the facts and thefiction. This is not an easy task, considering the amount of vampire lore which has imbibed our culture since815Dracula was first published in 1897.

Even if you haven't yet read Stoker's novel you have probably seen some of the many films based on hischaracter. Some of the most important cinematic adaptations are F.W. Murnau's 1922 masterpiece "Nosferatu",which was loosely based on Dracula but subjected to a "makeover" for copyright reasons, Todd Browning's"Dracula", which starred Bela Lugosi, a Romanian actor who had previously incarnated the titular character on820the stage, and would forever be remembered, and unfortunately typecast as Dracula. While there were others inbetween, one of the most interesting, although flawed adaptation, of Dracula was Francis Ford Coppola's 1992release, "Bram Stoker's Dracula". Coppola's version is noteworthy for it's inclusion of the "Order of the Dracul",which cleverly interwove the fictional vampire with the historical figure.

What is interesting to note, is that Stoker's vampire, while being loosely based on Vlad the Impaler, is nowhere825near as threatening, nor as sadistic. Stoker's Dracula is a mysterious, somewhat sensual character who kills andfeeds to survive, much like any being in nature. In fact, as much as there is reference to the evil of Dracula, it

can be reasoned that all of his actions were motivated by survival. Vlad the Impaler, on the other hand, killed notto feed, but to revel in his own power, and just for the sheer pleasure of seeing the suffering of his numerousvictims.830

Vlad the Impaler wasn't a "real" vampire, but he probably caused more rivers of blood to flow than any othertyrant in the history of the world. Bear in mind that there are many versions of Vlad the Impaler's life story, andthere are no entirely accurate ones.

The Dracul Family. The historical Dracul family begins with Basarab the Great (1310 - 1352) who ruled theprovince of Wallachia located in Romania, bordered by Transylvania to the north and Bulgaria to the South.835

By the 1400's, the Basarab clan had split into two rival factions. One was led by Prince Dan and the other byPrince Mircea the Old. During these times battles amongst the rival families became quite bloody. Assassinationand massacres were the order of the day. Prince Mircea the Old became known as Vlad I. His son was knownas Vlad Dracul II with the Dracul portion of his name being derived from the phrase 'son of the Dragon'. VladDracul II's son, born in 1431, inherited his father's name and was called Vlad Dracul III. His name further840expanded to Vlad Tepes which translated to English means Vlad the Impaler.

Vlad the Impaler. Little is known of Vlad Dracul Tepes's family. It is believed that his father died violently duringwar. His brother, Mircea and younger brother, Radu also dies untimely deaths (it is rumored that Mircea wasburied alive by his enemies).

In 1448, Vlad Dracul Tepes, whom we'll call Dracula from this point on, took over the thrown of Wallachia briefly.845During this time ownership of the thrown was not dictated by inheritance but rather by how effective you were intaking control by whatever means necessary. After only 2 months in control, Dracula was forced to surrender thethrown to Vladislav II. Around 1456, Dracula regained his kingdom by killing Vladislav in bloody combat.

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Dracula's Rule. Dracula's primary rule extended from 1456 through 1462. He ruled the land with an iron hand,believing that the only way to keep the civilians and merchants in line was to strike fear in their hearts. Any acts850of dishonesty by local merchants meant severe and painful death. Not surprisingly, Dracula was respected by hissubjects as a warrior and a stern ruler.

The Horrors. Impalement was Dracula's favourite method of punishment. Not only was this method ofpunishment extremely painful, but Dracula seemed to derive sick pleasure from watching his people beingtortured. In fact, wood cuttings from this time period indicate that Dracula often dined surrounded by the855

decaying bodies of the dead.Impalement was initiated by taking a oiled stake about as wide as a burly man's arm, and inserting it through thevictims buttocks, often until it protruded from their mouths. The stake was purposefully kept dull to keep thevictims from dying too soon from shock. The victims legs were tied to two horses while the stake was placed inposition. Upon command the horses slowly pulled the victim's legs until the stake was impaled into the victims860body. After the stakes were in place, they were driven into the ground and placed around the outside perimeterof Vlad's castle. Bodies were left in these positions for months, the stench of rotting bodies permeatingthroughout the kingdom.

It was reported that the invading Turkish army turned back in horror when it encountered twenty thousanddecaying corpses along the banks of the Danube river. Their leader proclaiming "how could we possibly fight a865monster that could do such atrocities".

Massive impalements such as the one the Turkish army stumbled upon, were by no means uncommon. 10,000

were impaled in the Transylvanian city of Sibiu and on St. Bartholomew's Day, Dracula had 30,000 merchantsimpaled in the city of Brasov.

Although impalement seemed to provide sick pleasure for Dracula, it was not the only method of punishment870utilized. Reports indicate that tortures included nails in the head, cutting off of limbs, strangulation, burning,cutting off of noses and ears, mutilation of sexual organs, scalping, skinning, exposure to the elements or wildanimals, and boiling alive. No one was immune from these horrors - men, woman, children, lords andambassadors from foreign powers were all reported to have died at the hands of Dracula.

The End of the Era. Finally, in 1462 the Turks invaded Wallachia and overthrew Dracula. He was imprisoned for87512 years during which time he somehow managed to father two sons. During this time it was reported that he stillpracticed his favorite pastime. He often captured mice and birds which he proceeded to torture and mutilate orimpale on using tiny spears.

He was released in 1474 at which time he once again regained control of Wallachia. He ruled for two years until

1476 when he was killed by the Turks. It is rumoured that he was decapitated by the Turks and his head sent to880Constantinople where it was displayed on a stake as proof of his death. He was reported buried in Snagov, anisland monastery located near Bucharest.

The Evidential Pamphlets. Much of the Dracula history comes from political pamphlets published in bothGermany and Russia during the early 1500's. The printing press had just been invented and apparently thesetypes of stories served as entertainment for the persons of that era. The German publications portrayed Dracula885as a sinister, evil being. The Russian writings, however, took a different view and indicated that Dracula wassimply a ruler that got the job done. Either way, historians note that both sides seem in agreement of theatrocities that were committed proving that these stories are certainly based upon truth. Here are some of thestories as reported by the press of that era ...

The Golden Cup. Dracula was well know throughout the kingdom for his fierceness. In a brazen and arrogant890display of that fear, Dracula placed a golden cup in the centre of the city. Unprotected and openly displayed, it

was known that anyone who stole the cup would be caught and punished in the most gruesome mannerimaginable. The cup remained unmolested throughout Dracula's 12 year reign.

The Honest Merchant. A merchant from a foreign land once visited Dracula's castle proclaiming that someonehad pilfered his cart. The merchant was shocked to find that 160 golden ducats were missing. Dracula soothed895the poor man and assured him that the thief would be caught and his money would be recovered. He thengraciously insisted that the merchant spend the night in the castle. Immediately, Dracula order soldiers to place160 ducats plus 1 into the merchants cart. When the merchant returned to his cart the next morning he countedhis money and discovered that 161 ducats had been returned. He went back to Dracula and told him that themoney had been returned and in fact, the thief had added an extra ducat to the pot. Meanwhile, the real thief had900been caught and was order to be impaled. Dracula informed the merchant of the true story of the return of his

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gold and indicated that if he had not reported the extra ducat, he would have been impaled alongside the thief.

Dracula's Mistress. The old pamphlets indicate that Dracula had a mistress that lived in the back streets of thecity of Tirgoviste. Dracula was often moody and depressed and the woman made every effort to bring Draculaout of his gloominess. Once, when Dracula was in a particularly sorrowful state, she attempted to cheer him up905by telling a lie, proclaiming that she was pregnant with his child. Dracula warned her not to lie about such a thingbut she persisted to insist that she was with child. When Dracula had the woman examined by midwives, he wasangered to find that she had been dishonest with him. He proceeded to draw his knife and cut her open from the

groin to her breasts 'while proclaiming his desire for all the world to see where he had been'. He then left thewoman to die in agony. (1658) (7300)910

Unit 3 Peoples, Places, and CustomsThe Peoples of the AmericasThe word Indian, when used to describe the people living on the American continent at the time ChristopherColumbus arrived in A.D. 1492, is based on Columbuss mistaken belief that he had reached India. In order toovercome this error, in the late twentieth century the name Native American became more common. However,915this name has its own problems, because there is no such thing as a native American. Even the peoples whoinhabited the Americas before the arrival of the Europeans were migrants, though they beat the Europeans tothe New World by a good 20,000 years or more.

The first Americans came from eastern Siberia, now part of Russia, where even today one will find a hardynative population with facial features much like that of the American Indian. They began arriving somewhere920between 30,000 and 20,000 B.C., during the last Ice Age. With much of North America covered in a sheet of icetwo miles thick in places, the seas were lower than they are now. This created a land bridge across what is nowthe Bering Sea between Alaska and Siberia, and thus like the Israelites crossing the Red Sea, the first

Americans simply walked to the new land.

Origins of the Native Americans There is much dispute concerning the approximate date of the first925Americans arrival, how they spread throughout the New World, and the dates of subsequent migrations bygroups from Siberia. But it is fairly clear that they could have come only by this northern route, by far the closestapproach from the Old Worldthat is, Asia, Africa, and Europeto the New. It is likewise clear that many ofthem moved southward. By about 9000 B.C., people lived in the southern tip of South America. They continued tospread throughout the Americas.930

Over thousands of years, the first Americans divided into thousands of groups in every part of the New World,yet all these groups shared certain characteristics. This was particularly true of the two most outstandingcivilizations of ancient America: the Olmec and the Chavn.

Olmec, Chavn, and other ancient AmericansThere is enormous variety in the lands of North and SouthAmerica. This variety causes wide differences in the peoples ways of life. The Olmec homeland in Mesoamerica935was a land of steaming rain forests and lush, vegetation-covered mountains. By contrast, the Andes the highmountains of South America where the Chavn settled, were rocky and dry. Despite these differences inenvironment, however, the two groups had much in common.

It is a mystery why the Olmec and Chavn, widely separated by distance and apparently ignorant of one another,both constructed pyramids. It is a mystery, too, why pyramid building seems to have taken place primarily in940northeast Africa and in the Americas, areas separated by thousands of miles of ocean. Some people believe thatbeings from another planet built the pyramids of Egypt, as well as those of the Americas. However, even if one

attempts to approach the question from the standpoint of a scientist (that is, by studying the facts and attemptingto build a theory from them, rather than starting out with a theory and trying to find facts that agree with it), thereseem to be no clear answers.945

Another curious aspect of ancient American cultures is their relatively low level of technological development incomparison to their achievements as builders. It appears that the Egyptians of the Old Kingdom who built thepyramids had no knowledge of the wheel. When the peoples of America built their own pyramids some 1,500years later, they also did so without the use of wheels. This is a curious fact, since archaeologists have foundwheeled toys at various sites, particularly in Mesoamerica. Why the Olmec did not adapt the wheel to more950practical uses is yet another mystery.

Furthermore, although the Inca would laterdomesticatethe llama, a relative of the camel that lives in the high

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Andes, ancient Americans were without beasts of burden.

Nor did they possess sophisticated tools. The Chavn became highly accomplished in the art of fashioningobjects from gold, but it appears that the Americas did not enter the Bronze Age until about A.D. 1200. Metal was955chiefly for decoration, such as gold jewelry; tools, on the other hand, were of stone. Thus, as one contemplatesthe pyramids of Mesoamerica, it is amazing to consider that they were built by more or less Stone Age peoples.

Both the Olmec and the Chavn civilizations grew out of agricultural systems that began developing in about3500 B.C. however, each had a central crop as important to their lives as rice was in India and China: corn (or

maize) in Mesoamerica, and potatoes in the Andes. Both served as parent civilizations to others that developed960around them. Not only did they trade goods with these satellite groups, but they also passed on knowledge andculture to them. Both groups built holy cities, or ceremonial centers, to which worshippers made pilgrimages.Like most peoples of ancient times, these early Americans believed that everything had a spiritual significance.Hence agriculture and religion were closely linked, and the power of ancient American gods centered aroundtheir ability to bring rain and grow crops.965

Finally, the two groups were linked by time. Each fit into the period designated as Formative, or Preclassic, byarchaeologists. This era lasted from about 1500 B.C. to A.D. 300. The Formative Period included not only theOlmec, Chavn, and their surrounding cultures but the earliest stages of what would become the greatestcivilization ofpre-ColumbianAmerica: the Maya. The latter would flourish during the Classic Period, from A.D.300 to 900, continuing long after ancient times. Finally came the Postclassic Period (A.D.9001540), dominated970by the Aztec in Mesoamerica and the Inca in the Andes. These great cultures of later periods, however, wouldnot have been possible without the Olmec and Chavn who preceded them.

Other Mesoamerican culture:Teotihuacn Built in about A.D. 100, Teotihuacn was the first truemetropolis in the Western Hemisphere. Within 500 years, it would grow to become the sixth-largest city in theentire world. Like Rome and Babylon, Teotihuacn would become a symbol and an example to later civilizations;975but unlike those splendid urban centers of the Old World, Teotihuacn, whose name means Place of the Gods,was not at the center of a warlike empire. The Teotihuacnos were a peaceful people.

Teotihuacn appears to have been a planned city: that is, rather than simply springing up as most cities do, itwas designed and laid out. Covering 8 square miles, a vast area for an ancient city, Teotihuacn had apopulation of between 125,000 and 200,000. Again, this is an astounding figure for its time. Because of sewage980and sanitation problems, among other difficulties, ancient cities were seldom larger than small towns in moderntimes.

Like Rome, Teotihuacn was a meeting place for many cultures. It appears that people from all over

Mesoamerica lived in apartment-like buildings. The skyscrapers of Teotihuacn were its pyramids, the mostsignificant of which was the Pyramid of the Sun. It stood on the citys main street, which the Aztec laterdubbed985the Avenue of the Dead. Other great temples lined the avenue, which ended at the Pyramid of the Moon.

The people of Teotihuacn worshiped a variety of gods, the most important of which was Quetzalcatl. Depictedas a serpent with feathers, Quetzalcatl appears to have been a peaceful god of agriculture. The archaeologicalevidence shows no record of human sacrifice or warfare at Teotihuacn.

Teotihuacn survived until about A.D. 750, when it began to decline rapidly. Archaeologists have suggested990several possible reason for its downfall, including a fire that engulfed much of the city. The fire may in turn havebeen the result of organized action, either by rebels or outside invaders such as the warlike Toltecs, then on therise. On the other hand, the end of Teotihuacn may have come because its great population depleted naturalresources and created sanitation problems, which resulted in widespread disease.

The AndesAbout 2,500 miles south of the Olmec lived the people of the Chavn culture, around the border995

areas of modern Peru and Ecuador. The term Chavn refers to Chavn de Huntar, a ceremonial center thatdeveloped in what is now north-central Peru about 1200 B.C. Like the ceremonial centers of Mesoamerica,Chavn de Huntar was a city of pyramids and platforms, including a large structure dubbed the Great Pyramidby archaeologists. The name calls to mind the Great Pyramid of Cheops, but unlike the pyramids of Egypt, thoseof the Americas were places of worship rather than burial chambers.1000

Chavn de Huntar was about one and a half miles across and contained a Great Plaza, or open area, in thesoutheast. To the northwest was the court and temple of the Lanzon, a stone idol representing the