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Security DimensionsInternational & National Studies

From Personal to Global Security

SD

Edited by

Prof. Ing. Jana Müllerová, Ph.D. Assoc. Prof. Juliusz Piwowarski, Ph.D. Assoc. Prof. Andrzej Urbanek, Ph.D.

Scientific JournalNo. 21 (1/2017)

EDItorIAl BoArD

Edited by:Prof. Ing. Jana Müllerová, Ph.D. (Slovakia)

Assoc. Prof. Juliusz Piwowarski, Ph.D. (Poland)Assoc. Prof. Andrzej Urbanek, Ph.D. (Poland)

Editor-in-Chief:Assoc. Prof. Juliusz Piwowarski, Ph.D. (Poland)

Executive Editors:Jarosław DzIUBIńSkI, M.A. (Poland)radosława roDASIk, M.A. (Poland)

Scientific Editor:Prof. Witold PokrUSzYńSkI, Ph.D. (Poland)

language Editors:Prof. Mirosław SkIBNIEWSkI, Ph.D. (USA)

robert ottENBUrgEr (Uk)Prof. JUDr. Mojmír MAMoJkA, DrSc., dr.h.c. mult. (Slovakia)

Statistical Editors:Doc. Ing. Jaromir MlYNEk, CSc. (Slovakia)

tadeusz rAtUSIńSkI, Ph.D. (Poland)

technical edition and cover:Jarosław DzIUBIńSkI, M.A. (Poland)

Publisher:University of Public and Individual Security APEIroN in Cracow

ul. krupnicza 3 31‒123 kraków

Funding body:University of Public and Individual Security APEIroN in Cracow

Copyright © by:University of Public and Individual Security APEIroN in Cracow, kraków 2017

Printed edition: 100 copies

Frequency of issue: Quarterly

Contact person: Assoc. Prof. Juliusz PIWoWArSkI, Ph.D. (editorial board and publisher)

University of Public and Individual Security APEIroN in Cracowul. krupnicza 3 31‒123 kraków

tel. (12) 422 30 68; fax (12) 421 67 25 e- mail: [email protected]

Journal also available at:www.security-dimensions.pl

ISSN 2353‒7000 (previously: ISSN 2299‒4041)

Indexation: MNiSW: 7 points

Index Copernicus International: 87,30 points

Assoc. Prof. tomasz AlEkSANDroWICz, Ph.D. (Poland) Assoc. Prof. tadeusz AMBrożY, Ph.D. (Poland)Prof. gerhard BANSE, Ph.D. (germany)Assoc. Prof. Iryna BASYStA, Ph.D. (Ukraine)Assoc Prof. Stefan BIElAńSkI, Ph.D. (Poland)Prof. Yuriy BoShYtSkYI, JUDr. (Ukraine)Wojciech CzAJkoWSkI, Ph.D. (Poland)Prof. František hANzlÍk, Ph.D. (Czech republic)gen. Prof. Natalia kAlAShNIk, (Ukraine)Brig. gen. (ret.) Prof. Ing. Miroslav kElEMEN, Ph.D., DrSc. (Slovakia)Doc. JUDr. Štefan kočAN, Ph.D. (Slovakia)Adam krzYMoWSkI, Ph.D. (Poland)Prof. Jerzy oChMANN, Ph.D. (Poland)Col. gS Ing. Ivo PIkNEr, Ph.D. (Czech republic)

Assoc. Prof. Juliusz PIWoWArSkI, Ph.D. (Poland)Prof. JUDr. Ing. Viktor PorADA, DrSc., dr.h.c. mult. (Czech republic)gen. Ing. Andor ŠáNDor (Czech republic)Prof. JUDr. karel SChEllE, CSc. (Czech republic)Prof. Mirosław J. SkIBNIEWSkI, Ph.D. (USA)Prof. Svilen StEFANoV, Ph.D. (Bulgaria)Prof. Stanisław SUloWSkI, Ph.D. (Poland)Col. katarina ŠtrBAC, Ph.D. (Serbia)Prof. Łukasz trzCIńSkI, Ph.D. (Poland)Assoc. Prof. Alessandro VItAlE, Ph.D. (Italy)Prof. Janusz Józef WęC, Ph.D. (Poland)JUDr. Jozef zAt’ko, general poručik ICoCrIM (Slovakia)Assoc. Prof. Vaiva zUzEVIčIŪtĖ, Ph.D. (lithuania)

1. Theory of securiTy sTudies:Prof. kuba JAŁoSzYńSkI, Ph.D. (Poland)2. Technology:Assoc. Prof. Inga V. Uriadnykova, CSc. (Ukraine)3. MarTial arTs and physical culTure:Prof. tadeusz AMBrożY, Ph.D. (Poland)Prof. Stanislav DADElo, Ph.D. (lithuania) 4. arMy and disposiTional groups:Brig. gen. (ret.) Prof. Ing. Miroslav kElEMEN, Ph.D., DrSc. (Slovakia)Prof. Witold PokrUSzYńSkI, Ph.D. (Poland)5. law:Prof. JUDr. karel SChEllE, CSc. (Czech republic)6. hisTory:Doc. JUDr. Vladimir zoUBEk, ll.M., MBA. (Czech republic)Assoc. Prof. Stefan BIElAńSkI, Ph.D. (Poland)7. poliTics:Assist. Prof. Alessandro VItAlE (Italy)Prof. Janusz WęC, Ph.D. (Poland)

8. forensic science:Prof. JUDr. Ing. Viktor PorADA, DrSc., dr h. c. mult. (Czech republic)Prof. Janina zIęBA-PAlUS, Ph.D. (Poland)9. eThics and philosophy:Prof. Łukasz trzCIńSkI, Ph.D. (Poland)10. securiTy engineering:Prof. Ing. karol BAlog, Ph.D. (Slovakia)gen. Aleksander NEJEDlÝ (Slovakia)Doc. Ing. Jozef SABol, DrSc. (Czech republic)11. proTecTion of persons and properTy:Ing. Paweł PAJorSkI, M.A. (Poland)12. MaTheMaTical aspecTs of securiTy culTure:Ing. tadeusz ratusiński, Ph.D. (Poland)13. Medical and Kinesiological aspecTs of securiTy culTure:Prof. Dariusz MUChA, Ph.D. (Poland)M.D. Dorota Szczeblowska, Ph.D. (Poland)

Subject editorS:

Scientific board:

Prof. Carlos Eduardo Pacheco AMArAl Universidade dos Acores (Italy)ltCol Assoc. Prof. Nevena AtANASoVA- -krAStEVA, Ph.D.Vasil levski National Military University (Bulgaria)Prof. Vania BANABAkoVA, Ph.D.Vasil levski National Military University (Bulgaria)Prof. Eliseo BErtolASI, Ph.D. l’Istituto di Alti Studi in geopolitica e Scienze Ausiliarie (Italy)Prof. Wojciech CYNArSkI, Ph.D. Uniwersytet rzeszowski w rzeszowie (Poland)Andrzej CzoP, Ph.D. Wyższa Szkoła Bezpieczeństwa Publicznego i Indywidualnego „Apeiron”w krakowie (Poland)Prof. Stanislav DADElo, Ph.D. Vilnus gediminas technical University (lithuania)Jerzy DEPo, Ph.D. krakowska Akademia im. Andrzeja Frycza Modrzewskiego (Poland)Assoc. Prof. Jacek DWorzECkI, Ph.D.Wyższa Szkoła Policji w Szczytnie (Poland)Adam goŁUCh, Ph.D. górnośląska Wyższa Szkoła handlowa im. W. korfantego w katowicach (Poland)JUDr. Wojciech M. hrYNICkI, Ph.D. Wyższa Szkoła Bezpieczeństwa Publicznego i Indywidualnego „Apeiron” w krakowie (Poland)Prof. kuba JAŁoSzYńSkI, Ph.D. Wyższa Szkoła Policji w Szczytnie (Poland)Assoc. Prof. krzysztof kAgANEk, Ph.D. Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego w krakowie (Poland)Doc. JUDr. Štefan kočAN, Ph.D. Akadémia Policajného zboru v Bratislave (Slovakia)

Doc. Ing. Jozef MArtINkA, Ph.D. Slovak University of technology in Bratislava (Slovakia)krzysztof MIChAlSkI, Ph.D. Politechnika rzeszowska w rzeszowie (Poland)Prof. Ing. Jana MüllEroVá, Ph.D. Žilinská univerzita v Žiline (Slovakia)prof. Andrzej MISIUk, Ph.D.University of Warsaw (Poland)Prof. Jerzy oChMANN, Ph.D. Polska Akademia Umiejętności (Poland) Assoc. Prof. Antoni olAk, Ph.D.University College of Enterprise and Administration in lublin (Poland)Bogusław PŁoNkA, Ph.D. Wyższa Szkoła Bezpieczeństwa Publicznego i Indywidualnego „Apeiron”w krakowie (Poland) Prof. Francesco SIDotI, Ph.D.l’Uuniversita` dell’Aquila (Italy)Prof. Sergii Viktotovych SlINko lviv University of Bussines and law (Ukraine)Prof. lyubomyr SoPIlNYk, Ph.D. lviv University of Business and law (Ukraine)Doc. PaedDr. Samuel UhrIN, CSc. Akademia Pomorska w Słupsku (Poland)Prof. Bernard WIśNIEWSkI, Ph.D. Wyższa Szkoła Policji w Szczytnie (Poland)Prof. larisa A. YANkoVSkA, Ph.D. lviv University of Business and law (Ukraine)Assoc. Prof. Mirosław zABIEroWSkI, Ph.D. Wyższa Szkoła oficerska Wojsk lądowych im. generała tadeusza kościuszki we Wrocławiu (Poland)Doc. Vasyl zAPlAtYNSkYI, CSc. National aviation university (Ukraine)Doc. JUDr. Vladimir zoUBEk, ll.M., MBA. Policejní akademie české republiky v Praze (Czech republic)

board of reviewerS:

Contents

Scientific Pivot

Juliusz PiwowarskiThree Pillars of Security Culture • 16

Security ManageMent

rastislav Kazansky, Dusan Masar, Matus gregaDevelopment of constructive Simulation in Slovak republic environment – transition from Military to civilian Sector and Its Acquisition to Science and Practice • 30

Karol fabián, Michal Dobrík, Michaela Melkováinformation Security Model for crisis Management Simulations • 44

Security technologieS

Michal orinčák, Jana MüllerováSpecificity of Leaking Nitric Acid From a Tank Vehicle • 62

Maroš Krajčír, Jana Müllerová3D Small-Scale Fire Modelling Experiments and Testing Preparation • 75

holiStic PerSPective of KineSiological aSPectS

of Security culture

Anna Mazur-Rylska, Tadeusz Ambroży, Dariusz Mucha, Jarosław Omorczyk, Dorota Ambroży, Wioletta Mikuľáková, Stanisław Gulak, Ewa Puszczałowska-Lizis, Lucia Kendrová, Dawid Mucha

Distribution of Minimal and Maximal Values of the Location of the centre of Pressure in the frontal and Sagittal Planes in healthy Boys and Boys with Mild intellectual Disability Participating in 12-Week Equestrian Classes • 86

Sociology of Security

Karolina Wojtasik, Marek S. SzczepańskiCaliphate Calls to Arms. European ISIS Fighters in the Light of Sociological Analysis • 118

internal Security

Milan Dermek, Jana Müllerovárisk and Protection of fire fighting voluntary fire Brigades in Slovakia • 132

Andrzej Czop, Agnieszka JuszczakSubculture of Stadium Hooligans – Pathology or Crime? • 142

Michal orinčákSwine Fever Epicentre Elimination • 159

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The Editorial Boards accepts papers of at least 10 pages in length. Papers must be in english (either British or American). We also accept papers in other Congress languages (one or two for each issue). Submission of such paper must be consulted with the Editorial Board.Papers should be sent via e-mail to:[email protected], or via traditional post to:University of Public and Individual Security aPeiron in cracowul. Krupnicza 3, 31‒123 Kraków.Articles should be saved into a Word- compatible file (.doc,.docx,.rtf ). Font type: 12 Times New Roman CE or an equivalent Cyrillic font; single space of 1.5 lines; standard margins (2.5 cm); alphabetic, numbered refer-ences at the end of the text.

each paper should include:a) Abstract in English of maximum 200 words underlying the main points of the article. It should be informative and self-explanatory without refer-ence to the text of the manuscript. It should include any essential results that support the conclusions of the work.b) An extended abstract of ca. 1.500 characters with spaces, which should follow the structure of the article. This abstract is intended for Polish read-ers and, if submitted in English will be translated into the Polish language.c) 3‒5 key words, both in the language of the paper and in English. Key-words must differ from the words used in the title of the paper.d) Short biographical note of the Author.e) References should only include publications cited in the article and should be fitted to the pattern provided below:– For books: Rosa R., Filozofia bezpieczenstwa, Bellona, Warszawa 1995.– For articles from periodicals: Koziej S., Bezpieczeństwo i obronność Unii

Europejskiej, „Myśl Wojskowa”, 2005, no. 1.– For articles in books: Kudelska M., Filozofia Indii – kilka uwag

wstępnych, [in:] Filozofia Wschodu, v. I, B. Szymanska (ed.), Uniwersytet Jagielloński, Krakow 2001.

information for authorS

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f ) Footnotes should be placed at the bottom of each page and follow the patternprovided below:– For books: R. Rosa, Filozofia bezpieczeństwa, Bellona, Warszawa 1995.– For articles from periodicals: S. Koziej, Bezpieczeństwo i obronność Unii

Europejskiej, „Mysl Wojskowa”, 2005, no. 1.– For articles in books: M. Kudelska, Filozofia Indii – kilka uwag

wstępnych, [in:] Filozofia Wschodu, I, B. Szymanska (red.), Uniwersytet Jagiellonski, Krakow 2001.

– For sources already cited, use the Latin term: Ibidem, op. cit., etc.Quotations should be marked with double inverted commas. For embed-ded quotes, use »...«.Pictures, charts and illustrations: 300 dpi.The Editorial Board reserves the right to shorten and edit the papers.all articles are reviewed in double-blind system.We do not provide for payments.Authors should enclose a signed statement acknowledging the genuine-ness of the text (preferably, a scan of such a document).By publishing in “Security Dimensions” authors transfer the copyrights to the papers to the Publisher. Please enclose a statement to that effect.Please remember that such phenomena as ghostwriting and guest author-ship are unacceptable as they are a manifestation of scientific misconduct. All detected cases will be reported to relevant institutions. In every case of co-authorship, authors are obliged to enclose a statement of contribu-tion (all document forms are available on the website).By submitting a paper Author accepts the policy of the journal.

Publication ethics and Publication Malpractice statementThe journal Security Dimensions: International & National Studies is dedi-cated to following best practices on ethical matters, errors and retractions. The prevention of publication malpractice is one of the important respon-sibilities of the editorial board. Any kind of unethical behavior is not ac-ceptable, and the journal does not tolerate plagiarism in any form. Authors submitting articles to Security Dimensions: International & National Studies affirm that manuscript contents are original. Furthermore, they warrant that their article has neither been published elsewhere in any language fully or partly, nor is it under review for publication anywhere.

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The following duties outlined for editors, authors, and reviewers are based on the COPE Code of Conduct for Journal Editors. Editors, authors, and reviewers will also adhere to the Security Dimensions: International & Na-tional Studies Policies.For all parties involved in the act of publishing (the author (s), the journal editor (s), the peer reviewers, the society, and the publisher) it is necessary to agree upon standards of expected ethical behavior.

Author ResponsibilitiesReporting standards Authors reporting results of original research should present an accurate account of the work performed as well as an objective discussion of its significance. Underlying data should be represented accurately in the manuscript. A paper should contain suffi-cient detail and references to permit others to replicate the work. Fraud-ulent or knowingly inaccurate statements constitute unethical behavior and are unacceptable. Originality and plagiarism The authors should en-sure that they have written entirely original works, and if the authors have used the work and/or words of others that this has been appropri-ately cited or quoted. Multiple, redundant, or concurrent publication an author should not in general publish manuscripts describing essentially the same research in more than one journal or primary publication. Parallel submis-sion of the same manuscript to more than one journal constitutes unethi-cal publishing behavior and is unacceptable. Acknowledgement of sources Proper acknowledgment of the work of others must always be given. Authors should also cite publications that have been influential in determining the nature of the reported work. Authorship of a manuscript Authorship should be limited to those who have made a significant contribution to the conception, design, exe-cution, or interpretation of the reported study. All those who have made significant contributions should be listed as coauthors. Where there are others who have participated in certain substantive aspects of the research project, they should be named in an Acknowledgement section. The cor-responding author should ensure that all appropriate coauthors (according to the above definition) and no inappropriate co-authors are included in the author list of the manuscript, and that all co-authors have seen and ap-proved the final version of the paper and have agreed to its submission for publication. All co-authors must be clearly indicated at the time of manu-

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script submission. Requests to add co-authors after a manuscript has been accepted will require approval of the editor. Disclosure and conflicts of interest All authors should disclose in their manuscript any financial or other substantive conflict of interest that might be construed to influence the results or their interpretation in the manuscript. All sources of financial support for the project should be disclosed.Fundamental errors in published works When an author discov-ers a significant error or inaccuracy in his/her own published work, it is the author’s obligation to promptly notify the journal’s editor or publisher and cooperate with them to either retract the paper or to publish an ap-propriate correction statement or erratum.

editor ResponsibilitiesPublication Decisions & Accountability An editor a journal is re-sponsible for deciding which articles submitted to the journal should be published, and, moreover, is accountable for everything published in the journal. In making these decisions, the editor may be guided by the pol-icies of the journal’s editorial board and/or the policies of the publisher, as well as, by the legal requirements regarding libel, copyright infringement, and plagiarism. The editor may confer with other editors or reviewers when making publication decisions. The editor should maintain the integ-rity of the academic record, preclude business needs from compromising intellectual and ethical standards, and always be willing to publish correc-tions, clarifications, retractions, and apologies when needed. Fair play An editor should evaluate manuscripts for their intellectual content without regard to race, gender, sexual orientation, religious belief, ethnic origin, citizenship, or political philosophy of the author (s). Confidentiality An editor and any editorial staff must not disclose any information about a submitted manuscript to anyone other than the cor-responding author, reviewers, potential reviewers, other editorial advisers, and the publisher, as appropriate. Disclosure, conflicts of interest, and oth-er issues An editor will be guided by COPE’s Guidelines for Retracting Articles when considering retracting, issuing expressions of concern about, and issuing corrections pertaining to articles that have been published in Security Dimensions: International & National Studies. Unpublished mate-rials disclosed in a submitted manuscript must not be used in an editor’s own research without the explicit written consent of the author (s).

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Reviewer ResponsibilitiesContribution to editorial decisions peer review assists the editor in making editorial decisions and, through the editorial communication with the author, may also assist the author in improving the manuscript.Promptness any invited referee who feels unqualified to review the re-search reported in a manuscript or knows that its timely review will be im-possible should immediately notify the editor so that alternative reviewers can be contacted.Confidentiality any manuscripts received for review must be treated as confidential documents. They must not be shown to or discussed with others except if authorized by the editor.standards of objectivity submitted papers are evaluated in peer re-view system by two independent (not affiliated in the author’s institution), anonymous reviewers. Double-blind review standard is implemented: au-thor and reviewers do not know each others’ identity; the list of particular articles’ reviewers is never published.Phenomena as guest authorship and ghostwriting are unacceptable as a manifestation of scientific misconduct. All detected cases will be re-ported to relevant institutions.Reviews should be conducted objectively. Personal criticism of the au-thor (s) is unacceptable. Reviewers should express their views clearly with appropriate supporting arguments and give a clear conclusion for accept-ance or denial of the article.Acknowledgement of sources reviewers should identify relevant published work that has not been cited by the author (s). Any statement that an observation, derivation, or argument had been previously report-ed should be accompanied by the relevant citation. Reviewers should also call to the editor’s attention any substantial similarity or overlap between the manuscript under consideration and any other published data of which they have personal knowledge.Disclosure and conflict of interest privileged information or ide-as obtained through peer review must be kept confidential and not used for personal advantage. Reviewers should not consider evaluating manu-scripts in which they have conflicts of interest resulting from competitive, collaborative, or other relationships or connections with any of the au-thors, companies, or institutions connected to the submission.

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Publisher Responsibilitieseditorial autonomy Security Dimensions: International & National Studies is committed to working with editors to define clearly the re-spective roles of publisher and of editors in order to ensure the autonomy of editorial decisions, without influence from advertisers or other com-mercial partners.Intellectual property and copyright University of Public and Indi-vidual Security Apeiron in Cracow ensures the integrity and transparency of each published article with respect to: conflicts of interest, publication and research funding, publication and research ethics, cases of publication and research misconduct, confidentiality, authorship, article corrections, clarifications and retractions, and timely publication of content. Scientif-ic misconduct In cases of alleged or proven scientific misconduct, fraud-ulent publication, or plagiarism the publisher, in close collaboration with the editors, will take all appropriate measures to clarify the situation and to amend the article in question. This includes the prompt publication of a correction statement or erratum or, in the most severe cases, the re-traction of the affected work.

what iS aPProPriate for uS?We welcome submissions on widely comprehended security. Papers of non- scientific character that consists merely of opinion are generally rejected. Our rule is to define “security” broadly, so the topics of analyses we are in-terested in are numerous, below please find only few examples of them:1. Theory of security studies, including new propositions of definition

of relevant concepts and attempts of applying existent theories that are important for contemporary securitology.

2. Technology, i.e. analysis of all kinds of technological aspects of national and international security.

3. Martial Arts, papers regarding philosophy of modern and traditional Budo as well as analysis of work-outs for athletes training hand-to-hand combat.

4. Dispositional groups, analysis of schooling, trainings and work of uni-formed services, antiterrorists and other.

5. Law, analysis of legal aspects of national and international security and order.

6. History, new interpretations of or new information on historical events.

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7. Policy, analysis of contemporary security policy issues.8. Forensic science and criminalistics.9. Ethics, analysis of ethical aspects of administration, praxeology, combat

sport etc.10. Security Engineering, systems dealing with disruptions raging from

natural disastres to malicious act.11. Protection of persons and property.

If you are not sure whether your article is appropriate for the journal, please contact the editorial board ([email protected]).

Scientific Pivot

SECURITY DIMENSIONSInternatIonal & natIonal StudIeS

no. 21; 2017 (16–27)DOI 10.24356/SD/14/1

Three Pillars of securiTy culTure*1

Assoc. Prof. Juliusz Piwowarski, Ph.D.University of Public and Individual Security APEIRON in Cracow, POLAND

ABSTRACT

The article presents a proposal for multidisciplinary scientific platform, as a basis for security studies. It includes not only the military but mostly non-military aspects of secu-rity. An emphasis is put on security culture, the main pivot of the “Security Dimensions” as a scientific journal, with three pillars of the security culture concept: mental and spiritual (individual dimension), legal and organizational (social dimension), material.

ARTICLE INFO

Key wordsSecurity culture, security studies, multidisciplinary, pillars

* The article has been firstly published in “Security Dimensions” No 14, and is repeated as a manifest of scientific pivot of the journal; J. Piwowarski, Three Pillars of Securi-ty Culture, “Security Dimensions. International and National Studies”, 2015, no 14, p. 10–16, DOI 10.24356/SD/14/1.

This article is an invitation for co-creating interdisciplinary scientific platform. The aim is to provide such a mutual understanding, that allows to achieve a certain coherence and the comparability of the security studies research results, in the frame of “Security Dimensions”, a transdisciplinary scientific journal, created by me as an editor-in-chief, in accordance with the motto e pluribus unum.

The proposed platform is the scientific category known as security cul-ture, with her three pillars: individual, social, and material, connected with such scholars as Alfred Louis Kroeber or Marian Cieślarczyk.

Three Pillars of Security Culture

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***

The development of the human being, and daily functioning of the social collectivities, formed by families, local communities, including profession-al groups – is accompanied by a continuous erection of edifice of culture. The phenomenon of culture is the whole material and nonmaterial em-bedded elements of the legacy of people.

In 1871 English anthropologist Edward Tylor formulated a definition of the concept of culture1. According to Tylor, culture includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, customs and other capabilities acquired by man as a member of society. American anthropologist of culture Alfred Louis Kroeber (1876–1960) presented the concept of culture, which is the inspi-ration for the idea of the pillars of security culture. In his concept presented in The Nature of Culture (1952), the three components of culture are mate-rial reality, social culture, and ethical culture with related values2.

***

English philosopher and sociologist, Roger Vernon Scruton, as an apol-ogist of Western culture, highlights importantly – “culture is important”. This statement, in globalization era, does not reverberate all around us so strongly that it does not need to be repeated after Scruton, and con-firmed in the specific actions3. To teach others, that “culture is important”, we must therefore first begin with ourselves. Nowadays the false inter-pretations of freedom are very common, depriving us of culture, that give us patterns of behavior in accordance with specific standards and rules. Interpretations exempting us from obligations or responsibilities, result in aberrations in subarea of culture known as security culture. There have been a threat that our culture can be devaluated, and morality will be eliminat-ed, to the detriment of human security.

1 E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture, Vol. 1, Vol. 2, John Murray, London 1871. 2 A. L. Kroeber, The Nature of Culture, University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1952; Idem,

Configurations of Culture Growth, University of California Press, Berkeley 1944.3 Action in sociology is a kind of human conduct, to which their operators (the authors) imply some meaning. Such recognition of action category widespread thanks to theso-ciology of Max Weber – today is considered to be a rudimentary sociological category: Max Weber, Gospodarka i społeczeństwo. Zarys socjologii rozumiejącej, (Wirtschaft und Ge-sellschaft, Tübingen 1922), Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, Warszawa 2002, p. 6.

Juliusz Piwowarski

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The phenomenon of security culture is a part of culture in wide sense. “As being clearly shaped, a cultural domain is accompanied by a man from the dawn. As many anthropologists conclude, with Malinowski in the lead, providing security lays at the root of humanizing and constituted a conditio sine qua non not only of the survival of the human species, but also the development of other sectors of human culture”4.

***

You may discover that the phenomenon of culture and security, operate in a very similar way:1. Both for security and for culture – in parallel – the importance have two

simultaneously occurring parameters: space and time.2. Physical space gives, as an example, the possibility of “regions of secu-

rity” (or “regions of threats”), and at the same time allows the culture to expand on more and more territory.

3. The time parameter provides a frame of reference in which it lasts on a given territory, culture-building process identical with the develop-ment process of human bodies, small, medium and large social groups and whole societies-nations – this development determines the level of their security.

4. The development process is, by definition and common sense, the mech-anism of response to any threats or even – as defined in the security term – can be considered an analogon of the phenomenon of security.

5. Culture is in the particular civilization not only some “added value”, but it is an autonomous self-defenceness potential of a given civilization active persons or entities – in the fields of political, military, cultural, eco-nomic, ecological, legal, organizational, cybernetic or technical activities.

6. Culture in relation to the different active persons or entities that function under its impact, from a personal to a global scale, provides such a mech-anism, which may significantly affect the attitudes and behavior of these active persons or entities in certain situations, processes, or “points-in-time” events, carrying a variety of opportunities, risks and threats.

4 S. Jarmoszko, Nowe wzory kultury bezpieczeństwa a procesy deterioracji więzi społecznej, [in:] Jedność i różnorodność. Kultura vs. kultury, E. Rekłajtis, R. Wiśniewski, J. Zdanow-ski (ed.), Aspra-JR, Warszawa 2010; B. Malinowski, Naukowa teoria kultury, [in:] Szkice z teorii kultury, Książka i Wiedza, Warszawa 1958, p. 101.


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7. Culture can also be a theoretical model, having the power to explain, being applicable in security studies.

***

The cultural turn has been popularized by American philosopher and so-ciologist Fredric Jameson and his collection of essays The Cultural Turn5. Postmodernism pointed the culture, as the main element of social issues discourses. If “the culture is the whole material and spiritual elements of the legacy of people, embedded and enriched in the course of history, transferred from generation to generation (…)”6 and its components are the principia reducing the risks of social coexistence, cultural patterns, moral presumptions and behavior adequate for given social collectivity, in consequence, it affects the formation of social facts and artifacts belong-ing to the subarea of culture, which is the security culture. At the begin-ning of the 21st century the cultural turn in social sciences was prestigious-ly institutionalized by creation of the Center for Cultural Sociology at the University of Yale in 2001.

The effects of research on security issues (security studies), belonging to the nonmaterial elements of embedded legacy of people, are an im-portant part of a security culture, which used to be only a part of inter-national relations. Over time, this scientific approach gained importance and autonomy. Today, its fields, realism or idealism, thanks to constructiv-ist breakthrough, which came in the 1980s in security studies, can be used for research both the active persons or entities, in different scales, not only in the whole state scientific perspective. They are applied from the scale of the active persons by the scale of the entities up to the societies-na-

5 F. Jameson, The Cultural Turn: Selected Writings on the Postmodern 1983–1998, verso Books Publ., London – New York 1998; Idem, Globalization and Political Strategy, [in:] „New Left Review”, 4 ( July–August, 2000); Idem, Postmodernism and Cultural The-ories. Lectures in China (Houxiandaizhuyi he Wenhualilun), Shanxi Teacher’s Universi-ty, Xi’an 1987; Idem, Postmodernism, or, The Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism, Duke University Press, Durham 1991; see G. Steinmetz, State/Culture: State-Formation after the Cultural Turn, Ithaca, Cornell University Press, New York 1999; M. Jacobs, L. Spill-man, Cultural sociology at the crossroads of the discipline, [in:] „Poetics. Journal of Em-pirical Research on Culture, the Media and the Arts” 2005, 33, p. 1–14; V. E. Bonnell, L. Hunt, Beyond the Cultural Turn, University of California Press, Berkeley 1999.

6 „Kultura” [„culture”], Mała Encyklopedia PWN, Warszawa 1996, p. 445.

Juliusz Piwowarski

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tions and their states. A brief definition of the security culture, is proposed by the author of this article, as follows:

Security culture is the whole material and nonmaterial elements of embedded legacy of people, aimed at cultivating, recovering (if lost) and raising the level of safety specified active persons or entities. It can be considered in terms of individual – mental and spiritual, social and physical dimensions.

Developed, the so-called spectral version of the definition of a security culture, showing the importance of security consciousness for acting person or entity7, is indicated below. It is the result of the Polish-Ukrainian co-operation, as a result of research program (2013–2014), that took place in Cracow Research Institute for Security and Defence Skills APEIRON. The au-thors of the definition are Juliusz Piwowarski (CRISD APEIRON, Poland) and Vasyl Zaplatynski (National Aviation University in Kiev, Ukraine).

Security culture8 is the whole material and nonmaterial elements of embedded legacy of people in military and nonmilitary spheres – that is, the widely understood autonomous defence of active persons or entities. This phenomenon is a trichotomy, that create three over-lapping dimensions:

– mental and spiritual (individual dimension),– legal and organizational (social dimension),– material.Security culture is used for realization the specified aims and needs:1. Effective control of emerging threats, obtaining the status of a sat-

isfyingly low level of threats.2. Recovery of security in a situation where it has been lost.3. Optimization, for a specified active persons or entities, of the level

of multiareal understood security.4. To encourage in the social and personal consciousness about

the need for self-improvement and trichotomal (mental/social/material) development, along with enabling the motivation and attitudes that result in individual and collaborative activities, re-

7 See A. Zduniak, N. Majchrzak, Świadomość emocjonalna jako dystraktor w procesach ba-dawczych bezpieczeństwa, [in:] Metodologia badań bezpieczeństwa narodowego, vol. 3, Akademia Obrony Narodowej, Warszawa 2012.

8 J. Piwowarski, Ochrona VIP-a a czworokąt bushido. Studium japońskiej kultury bezpieczeń-stwa, [w:] Bezpieczeństwo osób podlegających ustawowo ochronie wobec zagrożeń XXI wie-ku, P. Bogdalski, J. Cymerski, K. Jałoszyński (ed.), Szczytno 2014, s. 451.


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sulting in a comprehensive development of acting persons or enti-ties, including their autonomous defenceness.

The precursor of the security and defence culture studies in Poland is Marian Cieślarczyk. It should be noted that the defence in this concept is concerned, despite schematic approaches, far beyond the military sphere. By “defence” Cieślarczyk means also the non-military potential. This po-tential enables effective tackling and preventing the occurrence of threats and to react on threats at the moment of their real occurrence. Professor Marian Cieślarczyk gives the following definition of a security culture:

Security and defence culture is a kind of social matrix, “the pattern of ba-sic assumptions, values, norms, rules, symbols, and beliefs that influence the perception of the challenges, opportunities and (or) threats, and the way of feeling security and thinking about it, behaviour and activities (cooperation) of active persons or entities connected with this, in a varie-ty of ways »articulated« and »learned« by them in the education of broad sense, including internal and external integration processes in natural adaptation and other organizational processes, as well as in the process of strengthening the widely (not just militarily) understood defence, serving the harmonious development of these active persons or entities, and the achievement by them widely understood security, for the benefit of each other, as well as the environment”9.

The concept of Marian Cieślarczyk shows that security and defence cul-ture is manifested in the following three dimensions:

1. The first dimension –ideas, values, and spirituality of the human being,2. The second dimension – social impacts of the organisation and sys-

tems of law,3. The third dimension – material aspects of human existence.The above components Marian Cieślarczyk called “pillars of a culture

of security”. They are named, respectively, mental-spiritual, organization-al and legal, and material pillars. The components of these pillars inter-penetrate, despite peculiarities. For example, knowledge as a component of the first pillar, is also an element of the second pillar, having the or-ganizational-legal and technical-innovative nature. The concept of security culture allows, in many cases, the integration of multidisciplinary studies

9 M. Cieślarczyk, Kultura bezpieczeństwa i obronności, Wydawnictwo Akademii Podla-skiej, Siedlce 2010, p. 210.

Juliusz Piwowarski

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on security and defence issues. This concept includes also the emotional and rational understanding of safety as a neutralizing agent against con-trolled (for the time) and legitimated “aggression”. Security culture, its suit-ably high level, allows us to avoid the temptation of an aggressive “win” for the higher needs, what is the need for “being an impregnable”.

***

Paying attention to the definition of security culture phenomenon, we can see that this combines all aspects of social life: spirituality, social compe-tence, materiality and their coherent, holistic implementation. It promotes security, conceived both as a value (1st pillar of security culture), as the desired state (1st, 2nd and 3rd pillar of culture) and as a process, which aim is to use the heritage of generations, repeated and evolving in three areas of the hu-man individual, human population and the material dimension of human existence – continuously thanks to the functioning of the intersubjective phenomenon, which is a cross-generation national transmission10. Security is implemented through the defence function, also understood very broadly – not only understood as a category of military considerations.

Cieślarczyk writes: “from my research, it appears that today, but also in the foreseeable future, thinking about defence only in terms of the mil-itary is insufficient”11. Similarly, Emma Rothschild in the article What Is Security?12, 1995, specifies the need to redefine the category of secu-rity in the process of extending its concept. The concept of defence con-cerned in individual and social (collective) context is almost synonymous with the concept of a security culture. Here you can talk about the exist-

10 Generation – the term can be through the following determinants of this social phenom-enon: a) genealogical relation of parents and children – it occurs for example in the Bible, or pedigree, b) para genealogical – an extension of the previous definition on the whole societies, c) „registered” (all of the peer groups) and d) cultural; see M. Wallis, Koncepcje bio-logiczne w humanistyce, [in:] „Fragmenty filozoficzne”, seria II, Tadeusz Kotarbiński (ed.), Warszawa 1959; similar differentiation of the generation term, gives M. Ossowska, Kon-cepcja pokolenia, [in:] „Studia Socjologiczne” 1963, 2, but the first of her typologies is limited to the genealogical type (parents–children relation) and cultural-genealogical (teacher–pupil relation).

11 M. Cieślarczyk, Kultura bezpieczeństwa i obronności, Wydawnictwo Akademii Podla-skiej, Siedlce 2010, p. 11.

12 E. Rotschild, What Is Security?, ”Daedalus”, Vol. 124, No. 3, Summer 1995, p. 53–98.


23

ence of a coherent, although multithreaded security culture, for the level of which, of the utmost importance are, inter alia, education and teach-ing, identity and social constraints, and challenges associated with con-scious effort, which is aimed at self-improvement of man, and on this basis the improvement created of social organizations, for example, in the spirit of the community, as it suggests the American sociologist, communitar-ianist, Amitai Etzioni13. According to Etzioni “the man does not exist as long as there is no socially; what he is, depends on his social being, and his use of this social being is irrevocably linked to who is. It has the ability to control his inner being, while the main path for self-control leads to con-nect with other, similar active persons, in social activities”14.

***

“American and English universities securitology is equated with the con-cept of security culture”15, as Leszek Korzeniowski observes. The use of the security culture category is recorded among a large number of re-searchers of transdisciplinary and very capacious issue, which is a mod-ern security science.

For example, Nick Pidgeon is among these authors16. The issue of suitability of scientific term security culture for research carried out by securitologists, according to Korzeniowski, is confirmed “through the Zohar”17. In the United States, Dove Zohar popularized his own concept and corresponding category – an equivalent to the concept of se-curity – which is security climate. A research team from Illinois State Uni-versity, led by Hui Zhanga studied the concerned issues of one hundred seven articles in which security culture or security climate phrases were

13 A. Etzioni, Spirit Of Community: The Reinvention American Society, touchstone, new York 1994.

14 A. Etzioni, Aktywne społeczeństwo, Zakład Wydawniczy Nomos, Kraków 2012, p. 22.15 L. Korzeniowski, Securitologia. Nauka o bezpieczeństwie człowieka i organizacji społecznych,

EAS, Kraków 2008, p. 39.16 N. Pidgeon, Safety culture and risk management in organizations, “The Journal of Cross

cultural Psychology” Cardiff University 1991, No 22, p. 129–140; J. S. Carroll, Safety culture as an ongoing process: Culture surveys as opportunities for enquiry and change, “Work & Stress” 1998, No 12, p. 272–284; M. D. Cooper, Towards a model of safety culture, “Safe-ty Science” 2000, No 36, p. 111–136.

17 D. Zohar, Safety climate in industrial organizations: Theoretical and applied implications, “Journal of Applied Psychology”, 1980. No 65, p. 96–102.

Juliusz Piwowarski

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contained. Effect of comparative analysis was a prove for both concepts equity, with only one reservation, that the term security climate includes more psychological aspects than security culture18. however, so as not to leave any further doubts, “must be added that both concepts in terms of subject and research methods of securitology, as the security science” – concludes finally Korzeniowski19.

***

You could say that modern social sciences put culture on a pedestal. As Ulf hannerz20 states “culture is everywhere”, while Mahmood Mamdani21 adds that “culture is a matter of life and death”. In addition, with the cul-ture “is to be reckoned with”, as recalls Samuel Huntington22. As previ-ously noted, culture as a whole of the material and spiritual achievements of humankind gathered, adhered and enriched in the course of its history. It affects decisively, but often it happens unnoticed, the research by a man this kind of social facts and artifacts, that belong to a specific, divided into fixed pillars, through which societies (Nations) can address certain types of threats, political and military, to a threat to national identity. These pillars and their potentials, being a preserved heritage of society, settle na-tional security culture.

In opinion of many security scientists, this very important social phe-nomenon, studied in all scales of human threats-ranging, from personal scale through national, international to a global scale – is always somehow rooted in the phenomenon of cultural trichotomy23.

18 H. Zhang, D. A. Wiegmann, T. L. von Thaden, Safety Culture: a concept in chaos?, ur-bana Champaign: University of Illinois, http://www.humanfactors.uiuc.edu/Reports& PapersPDFs/humfac02/zhawiegvonshamithf02.pdf, accessed 2008‒12–25.

19 L. Korzeniowski, Securitologia…, op. cit., s. 39.20 U. Hanerz, Cultural Complexity: Studies in the Social Organization of Meaning, Colum-

bia University Press, New York 1992; Idem, Cosmopolitans and Locals in World Culture, Columbia University Press, New York 1992.

21 M. Mamdani, Beyond Rights Talk and Culture Talk: Comparative Essays on the Politics and Rights and Culture, Palgrave Macmillan, New York 2000.

22 S. Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations, Simon and Schuster, New York, 2007.23 See i.e. L. W. Zacher, Jednostkowe i społeczne konteksty i wyzwania dla bezpieczeństwa,

[in:] Metodologia badań bezpieczeństwa narodowego, vol. 3, Akademia Obrony Narodo-wej, Warszawa 2012.


25

References:

1. Bonnell V. E., Hunt L., Beyond the Cultural Turn, University of Califor-nia Press, Berkeley 1999.

2. Carroll J. S., Safety culture as an ongoing process: Culture surveys as oppor-tunities for enquiry and change, “Work & Stress” 1998, No 12.

3. Cieślarczyk M., Kultura bezpieczeństwa i obronności, Wydawnictwo Akademii Podlaskiej, Siedlce 2010.

4. Cooper M. D., Towards a model of safety culture, “Safety Science” 2000, No 36.

5. Etzioni A., Aktywne społeczeństwo, Zakład Wydawniczy Nomos, Kra-ków 2012.

6. Etzioni A., Spirit Of Community: The Reinvention American Society, Touchstone, New York 1994.

7. Hanerz U., Cosmopolitans and Locals in World Culture, Columbia Uni-versity Press, New York 1992.

8. Hanerz U., Cultural Complexity: Studies in the Social Organization of Meaning, Columbia University Press, New York 1992.

9. Huntington S., The Clash of Civilizations, Simon and Schuster, New York, 2007.

10. Jacobs M., Spillman L., Cultural sociology at the crossroads of the disci-pline, „Poetics. Journal of Empirical Research on Culture, the Media and the Arts” 2005, 33.

11. Jameson F., Globalization and Political Strategy, „New Left Review”, 4 ( July–August, 2000).

12. Jameson F., Postmodernism and Cultural Theories. Lectures in Chi-na (Houxiandaizhuyi he Wenhualilun), Shanxi Teacher’s University, Xi’an 1987.

13. Jameson F., Postmodernism, or, The Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism, Duke University Press, Durham 1991.

14. Jameson F., The Cultural Turn: Selected Writings on the Postmodern 1983–1998, Verso Books Publ., London – New York 1998.

15. Jarmoszko S., Nowe wzory kultury bezpieczeństwa a procesy deterioracji więzi społecznej, [in:] Jedność i różnorodność. Kultura vs. kultury, E. Re-kłajtis, R. Wiśniewski, J. Zdanowski (ed.), Aspra-JR, Warszawa 2010.

16. Korzeniowski L., Securitologia. Nauka o bezpieczeństwie człowieka i or-ganizacji społecznych, EAS, Kraków 2008.

Juliusz Piwowarski

26

17. Kroeber A. L., Configurations of Culture Growth, University of Califor-nia Press, Berkeley 1944.

18. Kroeber A. L., The Nature of Culture, University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1952.

19. Mała Encyklopedia PWN, Warszawa 1996.20. Malinowski B., Naukowa teoria kultury, [in:] Szkice z teorii kultury,

Książka i Wiedza, Warszawa 1958.21. Mamdani M., Beyond Rights Talk and Culture Talk: Comparative

Essays on the Politics and Rights and Culture, Palgrave Macmillan, New York 2000.

22. Ossowska M., Koncepcja pokolenia, „Studia Socjologiczne” 1963, 2.23. Pidgeon N., Safety culture and risk management in organizations,

“The Journal of Cross Cultural Psychology” Cardiff University 1991, No 22.

24. Piwowarski J., Ochrona VIP-a a czworokąt bushido. Studium japońskiej kultury bezpieczeństwa, [w:] Bezpieczeństwo osób podlegających ustawo-wo ochronie wobec zagrożeń XXI wieku, P. Bogdalski, J. Cymerski, K. Ja-łoszyński (ed.), Szczytno 2014.

25. Rotschild E., What Is Security?, ”Daedalus”, Vol. 124, No. 3, Sum-mer 1995, p. 53–98.

26. Steinmetz G., State/Culture: State-Formation after the Cultural Turn, Ithaca, Cornell University Press, New York 1999.

27. Tylor E. B., Primitive Culture, Vol. 1, Vol. 2, John Murray, Lon-don 1871.

28. Wallis M., Koncepcje biologiczne w humanistyce, [in:] „Fragmenty filo-zoficzne”, seria II, Tadeusz Kotarbiński (ed.), Warszawa 1959.

29. Weber M., Gospodarka i społeczeństwo. Zarys socjologii rozumiejącej, (Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft, Tübingen 1922), Państwowe Wydaw-nictwo Naukowe, Warszawa 2002.

30. Zacher L. W., Jednostkowe i społeczne konteksty i wyzwania dla bez-pieczeństwa, [in:] Metodologia badań bezpieczeństwa narodowego, vol. 3, Akademia Obrony Narodowej, Warszawa 2012.

31. Zduniak A., Majchrzak N., Świadomość emocjonalna jako dystraktor w procesach badawczych bezpieczeństwa, [in:] Metodologia badań bezpie-czeństwa narodowego, vol. 3, Akademia Obrony Narodowej, Warsza-wa 2012.


27

32. Zhang H., Wiegmann D. A., von Thaden T. L., Safety Culture: a concept in chaos?, Urbana Champaign: University of Illinois, http://www.human factors.uiuc.edu/Reports&PapersPDFs/humfac02/zhawiegvonsham ithf02.pdf, accessed 2008‒12–25.

33. Zohar D., Safety climate in industrial organizations: Theoretical and applied implications, “Journal of Applied Psychology”, 1980. No 65.

Author:

juliuSz PiwowarSki – currently (since 2010) serves as the Rector of the University of Public and Individual Security “Apeiron” in Cracow. The founder of Cracow Research Institute for Security & Defence Skills APEIRON (2012) at the University of Public and Individual Security “Apeiron” in Cracow. An initiator of international cooperation of Slovakia, Czech Republic, Ukraine, Italy, Germany and the USA. In 2009 earned his doctorate degree in the field of religious studies at the Faculty of Phi-losophy at Jagiellonian University in Cracow (Poland) and the Ph.D. the-sis pertained to the issues of security culture contained in the tradition of the ethical code of the Samurai “Bushido”. So far Juliusz Piwowarski is the author of two monographs published abroad, eleven monographs published at Polish publishers and near-ly a hundred scientific articles published at Polish and foreign scientific magazines. His main interests are security sciences, philosophy of security, social psychology, sociology, pedagogy, praxeology and science of morality conceived as a constituent of the first pillar of security culture.

Cite this article as:

J. Piwowarski, Three Pillars of Security Culture, “Security Dimensions. In-ternational and National Studies”, 2015, no 14, p. 10–16, DOI 10.24356/SD/14/1.

Security ManageMent


no. 21; 2017 (30–43)DOI 10.24356/SD/21/1

DeveloPmenT of consTrucTive simulaTion in slovak rePublic environmenT – TransiTion from miliTary To civilian secTor anD iTs acquisiTion To science anD PracTice

Assoc. Prof. PhDr. Rastislav Kazansky, Ph.D. Faculty of Political Sciences and International Relations, Matej Bel University, Slovakia

Ing. Dusan Masar, Ph.D. Faculty of Public Policy and Public Administration Danubius University, Slovakia

Cpt. Ing. Matus GregaAcademy of Army Forces, Liptovsky Mikulas, Slovakia

ABSTRACT

The use of simulation in training staffs and personnel (primarily military) had already begun in the seventies of the last century, yet only in developed countries. Slovak Republic, even as non-NATO member (year 2000), has fully implemented standard simulation tools for constructive simulation into staffs’ training environment. Training and preparation of personnel is exactly the area where the possibilities for simulation technologies are (and still going to be) endless. Simulations are the important element able to fully contribute to the formation of skills of crisis managers making non-standard decisions in non-standard situations which are in line with the needs of the most effective protection of lives and property of citizens. The civil sector is looking for ways and possibilities of effective preparation due to changes in the security environment and the consequent necessity for active education of crisis managers. The article discusses the use of simulations and simulation technologies in the process of preparation and training from the military to civilian sector. The quality of training of crisis staff at both individual and collective level determines the real ability of action and the standard of coping with crisis and emergency situations. This article also presents actual results and

31

Development of Constructive Simulation in Slovak Republic…

the contributions of experimental crisis management computer assisted exercises and also defines the area of training and points to the fact that simulations are optimal alternative solutions of the training process linked to theoretical as well as practical knowledge.

ARTICLE INFO

Article historyReceived: 23.02.2017 Accepted 19.03.2017

Key wordsconstructive simulation, crisis staff, military staff, training, simulation technologies

Introduction

A bipolar dividing period of time when the world was divided in two clearly determined blocks with their own military and industrial interests and structures is irretrievably over now.

The end of the Cold War, the fall of the Berlin Wall, the terrorist at-tacks in 2001 are milestones which play their important role in a forming process of security strategy not only in our country.

Changes of the former social structure and entire atmosphere in Eu-rope have inflicted decomposition of old previous security systems and units. The forming period of new ones denotes difficult long term process.

Potential causes of crisis and conflicts origins are being changed as well as the rate of quantity of the vast local conflicts. The causes of their or-igin and ways of their solution or duration are being changed as well. The peoples´ opinions and attitudes are also being changed, the autono-mous organizational units are being founded so as to be prepared to offer a relevant solution.

It appears, that the formation of the new isolated state units or other groups is inconvenient solution in this situation, but on the contrary, it is necessary to build up subjects being able to cooperate and be involved operatively in solution process of crisis situation and combine efforts ac-cording to the particular range and character of threat.

Analysis of the current security environment of the Slovak Republic and assumed development of political-military aspects reveals that the probabil-ity, variety, unpredictability and severity are increasing especially of non-mil-itary threats. The combined threats occurrence probability is being currently increasing, especially in mass migration through states, international ter-

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Rastislav Kazansky, Dusan Masar, Matus Grega

rorism and organised crime and in recent period of time natural disasters, industrial or technical accidents or ecological catastrophes.

In pursuance of mentioned facts a permanently valid task emerges within preparation and training of crisis management bodies- crisis man-agement1. The twentieth century was the period of time of computer tech-nologies installation into several areas of human activities. Various ways of usage of information and communication technologies were developed hand in hand with their facilitation and improvement. One of the forms of using computers was and still is- playing computer games. From simple computer games people have gradually moved to difficult ones. The spe-cific game type was developed to imitate some activities and character of various types of means, so-called simulation2.

Initially there were elementary simulations of fighting means, aircraft, etc. Then there appeared simulations of wars with the option to simulate the activities of the whole formations and units. Those game types exactly served as the mean of program development for simulation of real fighting units in battlefield. Gradual simulation development has helped to extend the scale in terms of usage options for civil authorities. Yet, the simulation program had to meet the civil authorities usage needs.

In the present the number of potential types of non military threats is increasing. Even the Slovak Republic faces the possibility of non military threat. On the basis of given reason it is necessary to pay more attention in preparation and necessity of ensuring a solution of crisis situations.

A crisis management authorities training in the field demands higher financial support. The various simulation types usage can be the potential form and method of crisis management authorities preparation. A simu-lation of activities of crisis management authorities solving the crisis sit-uation is effective form of preparation of crisis staff members. The sole simulation effectiveness lies in the simplicity and availability of supported computer exercises and in financial demandingness as well in comparison with exercises carried out in the field.

1 D. Kollár, Strategický a krízový manažment: trendy a koncepcie, [in:] Interpolis´14: zborník vedeckých prác, Vydavateľstvo Univerzity Mateja Bela – Belianum, Banská Bystrica 2014, p. 230‒234.

2 F. Adamčík, The simulation technoiogies in a computer based training of flying personnel, [in:] Trans & MOTAUTO’06, vol. 13, International scientific-technical conference: 25‒28. 10. 2006, Varná, Bulgaria, Scientific-Technical Union of Mechanical Engineer-ing of Bulgaria, Sofia 2006.

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1. Crisis Management

Crisis management is an inseparable part of state governance, state and municipal authorities, organizations and institutions.

It is necessary to comprehend the entire crisis management system in sense of realisation of activities relating to the managing, elimination, and minimization of crisis impacts as well as activities aimed at minimization of uncertainty, increasing of security level, civil protection with compre-hensive support of participating crisis management components.

Well prepared/not only in theoretical level/crisis staff is an indispen-sable element for a crisis manager so as to be able to respond swiftly and efficiently on striking situation and to receive and analyse effectively new pieces of information from various sources and to sort out problems emerging from crisis situation.

In this staff everyone knows their own duties and is aware of the fact that prompt and right decisions are inevitable, especially under the condi-tions of time pressure. Precisely from this reason it is necessary to ensure regular and effective preparation and education of state administration workers and self-governing authorities in the area of crisis management.

The mentioned education is one of the important elements for achiev-ing necessary professional knowledge, technical and technological prepar-edness for solving potential incidents and crisis situations.

The solution should consist of the integrated conception of preparation to ensure preparation of persons in area of crisis management systemat-ically and conceptually, as well as to ensure population protection, state protection, industrial and other measures for states of crisis of interior security and public order, fire protection and integrated rescue system/IRS/Preparation and education should be executed within close coopera-tion with academia, professionals with practical experience and specialised work positions as well. The current preparation status of municipal bodies and particular rescue units of crisis staff reflects certain ambiguity of un-derlying assumptions. There are more subjects as it is common in com-parison with other countries in the EU which participate in coordination of particular components.

In a broader sense the complicated and long term transformation of pub-lic administration has brought only basic framework for gradual activation of crisis management components. The components of the crisis manage-ment/rescue – executive/demand individual preparation. The preparation

34


of the fire and rescue unit components and quick emergency medical as-sistance, police force preparation is contemporary organised at high pro-fessional level using its own training resources. Training and preparation of members of rescue organisations should be long-term process which does not end in recruitment of new members and their appointment to work functions. On the contrary, through this measure a new mem-ber/a rescuer, a fireman, a medic, etc./should be integrated in the perma-nent preparation and training system which the goal is to achieve the de-sired level of preparedness of the system as entity destined for sorting out potential crisis phenomenon.

Many forces and subjects participate in troubleshooting of incidents consequences which have various fields of activity. They should be coordi-nated by one headquarters – crisis staff.

The various simulation type usages is one of the potential alternatives of effective component training because collaboration exercises, which goal is to coordinate management and executive units, are difficult to be effec-tuated in real conditions. While solving a crisis situation, the IRS units’ activity simulation, and the simulation of crisis staff components decision are undeniably an effective form of education and training. The simula-tion effectiveness lies in simplicity and availability of computer supported exercises usage and also in financial demands in comparison to exercises executed in real conditions.

2. Constructive simulation in Distributed environment

Research, education and training of professionals in the area of training and crisis management relies on information technologies and areas based on modelling and simulation technologies, such as modelling of objects, simulation of communication or risk analysis.

In this area we can also include the medical assistance in the field, the in-tegrated rescue system, crisis staff activities, stress management and eco-nomic, traffic and reconsolidation of communication and infrastructure.

An application of sophisticated work place destined for crisis situation simulation enables to model a particular crisis situation that supports opti-mal solution search and consequently defines particular steps aiming to min-imize negative phenomena and eliminates consequences during crisis.

On the basis of model situations it is possible to verify real life experi-ence and gain an optimal result of particular model situation, process an optimal variant solution methods as well.

35


Usage of suitable hardware and software equipment enables to model several characteristic model situations of crisis, such as floods, fire, a land contamination, terrorist attacks, a toxic waste transport, an epidemic, a pandemics, etc.

Primarily we are dealing with constructive and partially with virtual simulation with an emphasis placed on the necessity of ensuring a bal-ance of essential features of simulation and corresponding human deci-sion support options. The constructive simulation is applied for staff and commanders training in the Armed forces of the Slovak Republic. An idea of constructive simulation implementation in training arose on interna-tional military exposition in 1999.

The Slovak Republic, as the first of NATO non-member states, de-cided to implement the full-valued constructive simulation system which had been installed only in modern countries that time. For this purpose the simulators of combat operations, staff models and computer war games are used as well.

These tools can be also used for staff and commander training, for tackling with OOTW tasks/operation other than war/and for the crisis management unless there is another specialised tool at disposal. Financial, technological and operational demandingness of constructive simulation tools demands their centralised installation and running. Usually it does not use components of the virtual simulation because a staff is not aware of its own presence and an eye view at real situation. However, the objects of virtual simulation can be used as components of battle in aggregate form. Due to the steep application development trends in the constructive simulation area are divided in short-term or long-term trends3.

Unification of the constructive simulation tools of the individu-al command levels and military units types and their integration, us-age of synthetic environment and battlefield (terrain, weather, period of time, electronization of battlefield), aggregation of models, models functions improvement, facilitation of trainee activity evaluation criteria, evaluating activity tool refinement, general training staff restrictions in terrain and quantitative switch to the simulated environment, integra-tion of virtual and life simulation tools in the constructive simulation through standard protocols.

3 L. Tomášeková, Bezpečnostné prostredie Slovenska, [in:] Interoperabilita 2012, Akadémia ozbrojených síl gen. M.R. Štefánika, Liptovský Mikuláš 2012, p. 38‒42.

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A purpose and main aim of constructive simulation usage during exer-cise especially consists of:– an improvement of staff decision and managing process,– a cooperation training of staff members,– staff training for carrying OOTW tasks out and handling crisis man-

agement tasks,– gradual and repetitive exercise execution with emphasis on important

exercise parts,– monitoring of exercise results and execution of their measurement

through given exercise goals,– verification of staff ability,– enhancement of interoperability and compatibility,– protection of natural environment,– reduction of significant exercise costs.

A training utilising the constructive simulation system enables effective preparation of commanders, staff and crisis managers. It deepens work customs of staff, accordance of tasks in progress and their link during or-ganisation and management of activity. It further enables to stabilize some more integration capacity of staff components, usage of assigned forces and units. It improves a share of individual persons on crisis in situation managing processes.

The constructive simulation system allows an intensive and flexible training with the option to change individual procedures in dependence on staff decision according to model exercise incident. Higher staff train-ing level is accomplished by ensuring of objective exercise result evaluation which are achieved through the implementation of statistic methods.

3. sofisticated Centres of simulated technologies

The Simulation Centre as specialised sophisticated department uses simulation instrument of constructive simulation One Semi Automated Testbed Baseline („OTB“) in OTB 2.5.1 International version which rep-resents gateway to certain simulation types. Predecessor of this system – Modular Semi Automated Forces („ModSAF“) was launched in 2000 and in 2006 it was updated to OTB. OTB in its final version is an open system of hierarchically organised packages-libraries of the constructive simulation that are used for entities generation and their semi automated

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generation behaviour. An entities activity is generated in a synthetic and dynamic environment which is shared by all simulators within one exer-cise. Each entity is a separate model of particular item of simulated units in its synthetic dynamic environment and it is related to other items acts self-automatically. It means that entity:a) simulates autonomously with physical rules together the lowest tactical

level of behaviour and decision making,b) requires inputs from simulated units operator for an action requiring

higher tactical decision making level. Thanks to this manner it is possible to simulate entities in coordina-

tion with inputs from operators unit’s activity carried out during particular exercise. Besides interactivity with operator it is also necessary to be mu-tually interactive for mutual cooperation. The cooperation of several hun-dred even thousands entities in procedures going in parallel in a real time is solved by distributed interactive simulation („DIS“)4. Entities within DIS do not share common database, each entity announces other entities a change of its status by sending a message in form of standardised DIS. Reception and enter processing by entities sent messages is an inseparable activities part of each entity. In such a situation own view of the entity on simulated world and procedures within it are created. Thanks to that, a creation of its own actions and reactions which are sometimes connected less or more and influence themselves within own synthetic and dynamic environment is enabled.

The standardised date protocol DIS (nowadays protocol High Level Architecture – HLA) is used within a distributed simulation for chang-ing pieces of information between simulation applications, which defines united architecture, models protocol, standards and databases. The pro-tocol DIS carries information about a units structure and an equipment, state, received tasks and its accomplishment, their position, information about terrain and its change due to weather conditions, a year and a day season, a status and changes due to the sunlight or the moonlight etc.

Thanks to the principle of DIS use, the virtual entities run by a computer can cooperate with the virtual entities run by the operators and with the live entities assuming the fulfilment of mutual interaction and correlation.

4 Distributed Interactive Simulation is a standardized protocol. It presents the platform for conduction of war gaming in real time via more host computers, and is used world-wide, primary for military use.

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OTB is a system with hierarchy privileges according to particular groups. With assistance of users interface it is possible to carry out differ-ent operations according to authorisation level:– a map scale change,– a map data move while saving actual map scale,– a switching over of units display on the map with an assistance of sepa-

rate tools icons,– a drawing point and line objects, drawing areas,– a creation of different types of a chemical contamination,– a terrain recognition,– finding out a vehicles visibility as well as finding out an entities visibility

in the terrain,– an adjustment of meteo conditions in a synthetic environment.– supplies refill (a logistic support) for units in action.

While simulating the operation, entities are handled in assistance with wide scale of tasks which are predefined for the certain entity and their differentiation depends on a type of units or on a type and a size of an units formation. Depending on situation these tasks might be corrected (varied) by a change of predefined parameters while assigning the task or during its accomplishment. There is also a possibility of finding out the state of the units supply damage as well as the detailed review of the state of the particular unit. In OTB system there is a possibility to choose al-ternative physical measure units (length, mass angle, volume, temperature) and greed system that are the most suitable5.

OTB is a system with open software architecture. This architecture en-ables a particular parameters modification. This quality enabled to modify OTB system for exercise of crisis management organs, which was con-firmed in 2005 by carrying out for civil sector needs. It was a computer assisted exercise – CAX which was used for the crisis management. Now-adays, there are accessible modules that assist to simulate:– a flood wave after breaking water dams,– a contamination with different chemicals considering its characteris-

tics and their reaction considering meteorological conditions and ter-rain jaggedness,

– an outbreak and spreading of epidemic,

5 L. Tomášeková, Bezpečnostné prostredie Slovenska, [in:] Interoperabilita 2012, Akadémia ozbrojených síl gen. M.R. Štefánika, Liptovský Mikuláš 2012, p. 45‒47.

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– a fire and its spreading,– a landslide,– a crowd and its specific behaviour etc.

During exercises, OTB enables to assign tasks and commands for tech-nical equipment, entities or for all formations at one time. For a comput-er operator it displays in a clear form actual state on a 2-D digital map surface (according to the real visibility) as well as a course and a result of simulated situation.

For a 3D display to the simulated reality, simulated centres are equipped with special visualisation software. Actually, it is a 3D view to the action area. In a course of exercises it is mainly used to judge activities in the syn-thetic environment where exercising troops act or it is used as a recon heli-copter view (under the condition that the subject disposes it in the real sit-uation). During the exercise, pictures from this program might be used as photogrammetric pictures or intelligence information obtained by UAVs or drones.

4. Research Realised During Cax

Involved participants of the exercises improve the level of their knowledge by exercises supported by simulation technologies and also obtain need-ed practical experience for the tasks accomplishment. Exercises are able to examine abilities in line of particular situations. Each exercise contrib-utes to next progress of components of IZS quality and mainly its current and potential operators.

During CAX the scientific research was carried out, in which were used different methods and forms such as questionnaires, interviews, observation of exercises as well as mathematic and statistic calculations and formulations6.

There are several relevant benefits as follows:– Quantification of phenomena and procedures enabling their more ac-

curate analysis and use of optimization in decision and planning activity of management organs turned out to be an essential factor, where man-agement organs are able to evaluate figures from CAX and implement them into crisis plans.

6 P. Bučka, V. Andrassy, M. Grega, Blended simulation – not only as an effective mili-tary training commanders and staffs in ICM operations, [in:] Výstavba, rozvoj a použití AČR2012: tvorba a rozvoj operačních koncepcí, University of defence, Czech republic, Brno 2012.

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– The possibility of modelling and simulation of generalisation of objects, procedures and phenomena at a different level that enables practising of all levels meaning tactical, operation and strategic.

– Objectivity of an expression of the influence of the terrain and other en-vironmental factors, in which up to 90% of exercising persons underes-timate these essential factors.

– An application of the influence of subjective factors of mutual interac-tions (especially their rational aspects) in planning and decision-making procedures of management organs that are able to be reiterated repeated and analysed anytime.

– A possibility of the realisation of exercises in the ongoing situation pro-vided in a different geographical region, in different climatic and me-teorological conditions with a different technical equipment according to existing or new operation processes. This benefit turned out not to be very effective and applicable as crisis manager knows the area of action.

– A low economic demand for realisation of exercises with use of contem-porary infrastructure. The exercises represent financial saving comparing to real exercises and we may say and express mathematically that the ra-tio is 1:200. Carrying out of a real exercise in its basic model represents 10 000 Euros and its computer equivalent is only 500 Euros.

– A possibility of a good perception of the course of exercises and their application for more objective evaluation of the results and conclu-sion formations and recommendations for practice (a documentation of the solution course of the situation in the 2D and 3D display, a possi-bility of particular and complex statistic figures) these data are in a graph form, text, and are able to be expressed financially. These data are rele-vant sources for planning crisis situations and 100% exercising persons used them for the crisis scenario revision.

– A possibility of connection of constructive simulation systems with sim-ulation systems of other categories, in which crisis staff may exercise in cooperation tasks.

– An information concentration for exercise analysis and further analysis and its application in next period.

– A possibility to look for optimal solutions in use of forces and means by continuous CAX scenario repeating and varied.

– A preparation of exercising persons to take risks as the result of their decisions. In this matter, it is possible to claim that only 25% realise im-

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pacts of their decisions and do not realise seriousness of the crisis situa-tion solution7.

Conclusion

Continuous development of information technologies, a dynamic environ-ment, unpredictable natural disasters with quick course and more difficult demands on crisis managers are essential attributes why we have to look for new and effective solutions of education and preparation of crisis manage-ment organs. It is obvious that current preparation and education based on traditional methods such as a lecture with the goal of explanation of crisis situation legislation, static expositions of technical equipment and tools, lectures on crisis phenomena cannot develop leadership abilities of crisis managers, do not enable coordination practice, a cooperation, a flexibility, receiving and analysis of information etc.

Considering financial capacities, the status of domestication of current system of constructive and virtual simulation results of carried crisis man-agement exercises and brought benefits, the simulation centres tend to be the most suitable solution for the crisis staff preparation due to expert staff, the software and the hardware equipment.

In spite of the undisputed need of the change in a crisis staff exercises considering the responsibility to the population and above described ben-efits and conclusions, there are only few exercises carried out with support of simulation technologies.

A conclusive and solemnly accepted effective preparation and a con-ception of crisis managers and self-government education are missed when we speak about an implementation of the usage of modern in-formation-and-communication technologies which can effectively pre-pare members of a crisis staff, lord mayors, mayors and other institutions of self-government and government management. Simulation centres enable IZS components and crisis staffs to carry out specialised and vari-ous training and preparation, in which crisis staffs may check correctness of operation procedures, information sources on horizontal and vertical level, timing of emergency plans and verification of a staffs coordination and cooperation as well. Variable exercises might be carried out as follows: 7 P. Bučka, V. Andrassy, M. Grega, Blended simulation – not only as an effective mili-

tary training commanders and staffs in ICM operations, [in:] Výstavba, rozvoj a použití AČR2012: tvorba a rozvoj operačních koncepcí, University of defence, Czech republic, Brno 2012.

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– first-stage exercises for the training of local crisis staffs of towns with a simulation of floods, landslides, wind disasters or chemical disaster,

– second-stage exercises for the cooperation training of local self-govern-ment components where relevant authorities would exercise,

– exercises with the complex subject on the state level run by one of min-istries (or several ministries), according to the simulated situation,

– exercises for partial IZS components with the training focussed on solution of elementary crisis situations with a necessity of another units cooperation

References

1. Adamčík F., The simulation technoiogies in a computer based training of flying personnel, [in:] Trans & MOTAUTO’06, vol. 13, International scientific-technical conference: 25‒28.10.2006, Varná, Bulgaria, Sci-entific-Technical Union of Mechanical Engineering of Bulgaria, Sofia 2006.

2. Bučka P., Andrassy V., Grega M., Blended simulation – not only as an ef-fective military training commanders and staffs in ICM operations, [in:] Výstavba, rozvoj a použití AČR2012: tvorba a rozvoj operačních koncepcí, University of defence, Czech republic, Brno 2012.

3. Correll J., War in Cyberspace, “Air Force Magazíne”, 1998, No. 1. 4. Grega M., Efektívna príprava manažérov krízy, Mladá veda 2012 –

Veda a krízové situácie IX. medzinárodná vedecká konferencia mladých vedeckých pracovníkov a doktorandov, FŠl Žilinská univerzita, Žilina 2012.

5. Kelemen M., Olejní F., Development of simulation technologies at the Air Force Academy in Košice, “Zeszyty naukowe”, 2004, no. 2 (6).

6. Kelemen M., Soušek R., The development of the Slovak Air Force’s air transport capabilities for joint logistics support operation, “Acta avioni-ca”, 2006, no. 12.

7. Kollár D., Strategický a krízový manažment: trendy a koncepcie, [in:] In-terpolis´14: zborník vedeckých prác, Vydavateľstvo Univerzity Mateja Bela – Belianum, Banská Bystrica 2014.

8. Kurhajcová L., Key competence of managers, “Review of the Air Force Academy”, 2009, no. 2 (15).

9. Kováčová L., Tyrala P., Methodology of Securitv Education, [in:] Metodoló-gia bezpečnostného vzdelávania, VŠBM, Košice 2011.

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10. Olak A., Kozaczuk F., Krauz A., Edukacja dla bezpieczeňstwa, náuka Edukacja Rozwój, Ostrowiec Šw. 2011.

11. Sedlák V., Losonczi P., Kiss I., Security IT, VŠBM, Košice 2008. 12. SUN TZU, The Art of War, Delacorte Press, New York 1983.13. Tomášeková L., Bezpečnostné prostredie Slovenska, [in:] Interoperabilita

2012, Akadémia ozbrojených síl gen. M.R. Štefánika, Liptovský Mi-kuláš 2012.


R. Kazansky, D. Masar, M. Grega, Development of Constructive Simu-lation in Slovak Republic Environment – Transition from Military to Ci-vilian Sector and Its Acquisition to Science and Practice, “Security Dimen-sions. International and National Studies”, 2017, no 21, p. 30-43, DOI 10.24356/SD/21/1.


no. 21; 2017 (44–59)DOI 10.24356/SD/21/2

informaTion securiTy moDel for crisis managemenT simulaTions

Assoc. Prof. Ing. Karol Fabián, CSc. Matej Bel University, Slovakia

PhDr. Michal Dobrík, Ph.D.Matej Bel University, Slovakia

Michaela Melková, M.A.Matej Bel University, Slovakia

ABSTRACT

Research activities of Crisis Management Center at Matej Bel University are focused at development and tuning of crisis scenarios for different critical events. Specialized tools are used for crisis management scenario workflow design and simulations. For complex analysis and information security crisis management, complex multilevel multisilo information security model was designed and described in the paper. Equipment and procedures used in current security measures defending organizations and states against advanced persistent threats and attacks from the cyberspace are attached to each level and silo of the model. This enables simulation of crisis management scenarios in case of cyberattack as precise as possible to real situations of critical architecture attacks, which can have dramatic consequences as outages or complete shutdown of energy grids, destroying factories, key data destructions and other catastrophic events.

ARTICLE INFO


Key wordscrisis management center of excellence, advanced persistent threats, simulation model, cyberspace,

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Information Security Model for Crisis Management Simulations

Introduction: Crisis Management Center At Matej Bel University

Crisis Management Center, an academic center of excellence in crisis man-agement research, was established with direct financial support of the EU structural funds at Matej Bel University in the city of Banská Bystrica, Slovak Republic. It has been involved in development and tuning of cri-sis scenarios for different critical events as cyberattacks, accidents with multiple casualties, floods, nuclear accidents and migration crisis, which are all very important events in current evolving geopolitical situation re-quiring specialized crisis management1. For complex analysis and simu-lation of information security crisis management scenarios, information security multilevel multisilo model has been designed. This model cov-ers most used procedures and equipment including artificial intelligence used in current protection against advanced persistent cyber-attacks and threats. Today, outages or complete shutdown of energy grids, destroying factories, key data destructions and other catastrophic scenarios are sev-eral results of possible attacks of cyber units2. There is an ongoing strug-gle between absolute freedom of expression on the Internet and the level of serious constraints to ensure the safety of key government institutions. Compromise between these two policies shows that cyber-attacks target-ing the institutions and individuals are everyday reality in the cyberspace. Crisis management simulation and planning system KRIMA (Emer-gency Enterprise Manager EEM), implemented in the above mentioned CMC enables construction and simulation of crisis management steps and systems in critical situations at institution after noticed cyberattack or known threat in place. Therefore, it is necessary to deal with consistent education and protection of individuals3, institutions and states in the cy-berspace. Crisis management planning after cyberattack is not well devel-

1 I. Bremer, The geopolitics of cybersecurity, „Foreign Policy“, http://foreignpolicy.com/2011/01/12/the-geopolitics-of-cybersecurity/(accessed: 27.02.2017); P. Terem, P. Čajka, L. Rýsová, Slovakia in geopolitical and geo-economic context, Kamil Mařík – Pro-fessional Publishing, Praha 2015; J. Ušiak, Security cooperation within V4, [in:] Central and Eastern European Political Systems, Metropolitan University in Prague, Prague 2016.

2 T.A. Johnson, Cyber-security. Protecting Critical Infrastructures from Cyber Attack and Cyber Warfare, CRC Press. 2015, p. 363.

3 R. Kazanský, M. Melková, Information Technologies and their Usage in Crisis Manage-ment as a Tool to Increase the Quality of Educational Process, [in:] 15th International Multidisciplinary Scientific Geoconference SGEM 2015. Vol. 3. STEF92 Technology Ltd. Sofia, Bulgaria.

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Karol Fabián, Michal Dobrík, Michaela Melková

oped and described yet. KRIMA system, operated at the CMC enables users to create and simulate crisis scenarios dealing with situations right after cyberattack targeting the technical infrastructure of institution, state or personal computer networks as well. Emergency Enterprise Manager KRIMA is the basic software tool of the center4. It is a crisis management system supporting various types of users and their requirements concern-ing the prevention, solution and reconstruction.

System logs important events automatically in order to make revision of objects and crisis situations in later stages. Ways to log in can be set in configuration setting of database server. System supports simulation mode. This mode is very similar to a real one. Simulation mode is config-ured to send notifications to created simulation accounts, not to responsi-ble persons or management of organization.

Crisis situation reporting uses templates to categorize the incident. Re-ported incident can be supported either by existing workflow or by crea-tion of new one, if necessary. According to severity of the situation the risk factor is being calculated. In case of advanced persistent threat or attack from the cyberspace we must create complex general model, which in-cludes all possible security levels and corresponding tools for defending targeted organization most effectively in order to include all aspects of in-formation security in simulation.

1. General Model of Information security

In this chapter we will show options for protecting company, organization and individuals against advanced threats from the cyberspace divided into two levels and four silos model of information security5.

We will describe the architecture and functions of the technology, tech-nical programming or combined dedicated equipment with the applica-tion of advanced artificial intelligence continuously adaptable to chang-ing security environment in the cyberspace. In fact, it is a never ending process. These specialized technologies, complemented by sophisticated software protection at the application level now represents complete pro-

4 K. Fabián, Crisis Management Training System For Advanced Security Threats In Cyber-space, Proceedings of IMSCI, Orlando, Florida USA 2014.

5 K. Fabián, M. Melková, Vybrané otázky kybernetickej bezpečnosti, Belianum -Vydavateľst-vo Univerzity Mateja Bela v Banskej Bystrici, Fakulta politických vied a medzinárod-ných vzťahov, 2016.

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tection against unwanted penetration and threats. Security of all connect-ed equipment into Internet is tested immediately by robotic explorers and cyber criminals. In the era of Internet of things (IoT), penetration is pos-sible trough equipment of everyday life. Ports, which are input gates into connected PC´s and running web pages are targets of hundreds of attacks every hour.

Picture No. 1: Model of information security for crisis management simulations

Credibility of documents, important business communications, access to state administration web portals and its services, tax authorities, etc. are secured by electronic signature. It is now an integral and mostly obligatory part of a secure cyberspace. Only by use and combination of more technol-ogies in described two levels and four silo model later will help to achieve organisation desired information security.

Model of information security which will serve for complex crisis man-agement simulation in case of advanced attack from the cyberspace has four basic vertical silos: 1. People and identity2. Data and information 3. Application security4. Infrastructure

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All silos of the model covers layer of security intelligence, analyt-ics monitoring and analysis and separate layer of advanced security and threat research.

2. People and Identity silo

Every organization must be sure that authorized users within the organi-zation and beyond it, will have access to data and tools they need, at a time where it is needed. Unauthorized access must be blocked. Large organ-izations employ a large number of diverse users, so it means that access control is very important and complicated. An important part of access control and identity check is to monitor privileged users, such as adminis-trators. This silo includes the management of directory services.

2.1. Identity and Access Rights Policy

The information security management of identities and access rights (Identity and Access Management IAM) is the decision factor. It has a major impact on the organization’s information security and its pro-tection against attacks from within the organization. It allows author-ized persons to access the resources and data available to them at the re-quired time. Conversely, unauthorized persons are not able to access the data, their access to data is blocked. Systems that provide identity management and access policies are composed of specialized combina-tion of hardware and software. It carries out activities such as obtain-ing identity, identity protection and technological means for its security. They are specialized network protocols, digital certificates, keys, pass-words etc. Access management includes authorization, authentication, access rights and audit. Authorization is a set of rules that determines who is entitled to do certain specific tasks. For example, someone may delete records in the database and another user performs only reads. Authentication is the process by which the system assures that someone really is who he says he is. Today, the usual two-phase authentication is standard in Internet banking, where in addition to login and password, user is forced to confirm the actual code by text message, biometric sen-sors or electronic keys.

We have to include to this silo encryption, electronic signature and guaranteed electronic signature. Unlike most other described elements of protection against attacks from cyberspace that are installed and

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maintained by institutions, this category is fully within the competence of the individual Internet users6.

3. Data and Information silo

Organizations and individuals must protect unstructured and structured data to be within its scope. Each organization must determine the level of confidentiality, the value of data and information. It must define manage-ment and control of the risk. An effective plan for the protection of data and information includes the catalogue, respectively inventory of these files with attributes, policies and services that manage access, transfer and data trans-formation and information included in data archives. Privacy is for many organizations the most important thing for safety features. Encryption and protection of encryption keys is critical for ensuring data protection and is crucial for compliance with new incoming EU legislation7.

Data encryption on mobile devices and secure sharing of encryption keys between the organization and the user or provider of cloud services is often overlooked. Transmission of sensitive data over the Internet must be en-crypted. Analysis of data to and from network institutions is now monitored by a new generation of firewalls with elements of artificial intelligence.

3.1. Firewalls

Firewall is an essential component of network security technology that monitors and controls the incoming and outgoing data flow according to pre-established safety rules. Usually forms a barrier between a trusted, secure internal network and open cyberspace such as the Internet, which is considered unreliable. Generally it separates environments with different levels of security. Firewalls are often categorized as a network firewall or firewall software application, according to the level at which the device examines passing data.

Network firewalls are software applications that run on a standard or specialized computer and filter traffic between two or more networks.

6 ISO, ISO/IEC 27032:2012 Information technology — Security techniques — Guidelines for cybersecurity, International Organization for Standardization, 2012, http://www.iso.org/iso/iso_catalogue/catalogue_tc/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=44375 (accessed: 27.02.2017).

7 EU International Cyberspace Policy. 2014. European Union External Action, 2014, http://eeas.europa.eu/policies/eu-cyber-security/index_en.htm (accessed: 27.02.2017).

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Application firewalls are software applications developed for monitoring of incoming and outgoing traffic at specific application level.

The first type of firewalls called “packet filters” oversee the network addresses of passing messages and packets and decide if the packet is to be released into the system or must be blocked. This filter has a list of rules, which are used either to cancel or to reject message or packet. It sends an error message to the sender automatically. On the other hand, if the packet conforms to the programmed filter rules, it is transmitted to the other side of the firewall. This type of packet filtering takes no account of whether the packet is part of an existing data stream or not. It checks only basic information from a data stream contained in the examined packet, e.g. the sender and recipients type, communication protocol and if they are the most common types of protocols, checks TCP and UDP ports, find-ing the port number, which is the gate on the side of the recipient. So it is than clear what type of transmission is going on. TCP and UDP protocols are used to a certain type of transmission on defined port numbers and so packet filtering detects whether it is probably a surfing on Internet sites, remote printing, e-mail transmissions, file transfers etc. However, hackers are able to cover under the headings of standard network traffic to transfer sensitive data to or from the organizations, which are protected. Therefore the need for elimination of this danger brought next generation firewalls8.

The second generation firewalls works similarly to previous generations, but retains the transmitted packets and identifies their connections. The test criterion here is the link packet or if it is a start packet of the connection, part of already closed connection, or a packet without any connection.

The main advantage of the third generation firewalls is that it exam-ines the network traffic passing through the monitored levels of applica-tion. That means it understands and recognizes certain applications and corresponding network protocols. It is often useful because if unsolicited application or service attempts to bypass firewall rules and shapes itself as it is a protocol for e.g. web browsing http protocol, firewalls will block it immediately and evaluate how likely it is an illegal access or malicious communications. Greatest theft of personal data and access passwords have been made through improperly configured firewalls with theft cov-ered by http web browsing protocol. A new generation firewall examines

8 J. Andress, The Basics of Information Security: Understanding the Fundamentals of InfoSec in Theory and Practice (2nd ed.), Elsevier Science, 2014.

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in greater detail the contents of transmitted packets and is usually comple-mented by specialized systems for preventing penetration. Elements of ar-tificial intelligence are used for pattern recognition of hacker attempts.

3.2. Honeypot, Honeynet – traps For Capturing Cyber Attackers

Honeypot is fictitious vulnerable IT system used to attract attackers and then breaking their protection. Generally, honeypots are created as a re-pository of data to appear as a legitimate part of the target infrastructure, but in reality they are just a trap data, which are separated from the actu-al data and monitored. They seem to contain information that could be of interest to attackers. According to the use of their functions, there are two types of honeypots, production and research honeypots.

Production honeypots are easy to use, allowing only limited possibilities to identify the attacker. They are located within the production network with other production servers and thus increase the overall information security of the organization.

Research honeypots collect information about the motives and tactics of the attackers. Thus enabling the organization to detect cyber threats it faces and to improve the protection of the institution. They are very complex devices and applied mainly in military and government insti-tutions. Honeypots for malicious software (or malware honeypots) rep-resent another type of traps for cyber attackers. They are used to collect malicious software and uses familiar and recurring characters which is searched by attacker software. Mostly used at open repositories of virtual money (e.g. Bitcoin). Another growing Internet problem is spam, which now constitutes the majority of Internet traffic. Identification of sources, e.g. server addresses generating spam is also possible through the ded-icated honeypots, also called spam traps. In recent years, usage of such devices reduced amount of spam across the Internet significantly. To pro-tect large-scale architectures whole networks of dedicated traps are used to form dedicated honeynets.

4. Application silo

Access to IT security in layers and silos, as described in our model is neces-sary especially because of the fact that most attacks are happening in the ap-plication layer of the ISO standard communication model. The most effec-tive anti-penetration precaution is organization’s approach, which requires

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users to use applications that have been proposed and implemented with se-curity in mind. Organizations and individuals must proactively protect their critical applications against external and internal threats throughout their life cycle, i.e. from design, development, testing and production. Automatic inspections of the application source code and test of operating systems enables the identification of vulnerabilities which could be exploited by at-tackers. To keep attackers out of internal protected area of the institutions and simultaneously also provide services for the users from non-secured Internet, specialized demilitarized zone must be used9.

4.1. Demilitarized Zone DMZ

Architecture called demilitarized zone (DMZ) is used to address safety of current computer systems, which is basically physical or logical com-puter subnet separated by specialized firewalls from the Internet and pro-tected infrastructure of the organization. It is run by organizations that need to make their services and data available to authorized Internet users. Its purpose is to add another layer to enhance the security of protected local area network of the organization. External users will only have access to devices, servers, and databases in the DMZ area.

Services, which are usually in the demilitarized zone are e-mail, web site servers with information for the public and DNS servers. Since these servers are at increased risk of attacks, they are located in a specific subnet, so that the remaining part of the infrastructure of the organization has been effectively protected. Servers in the DMZ have only limited ability to communicate with servers on the internal network of the organization. Also communication rights for servers in the DMZ to the Internet is controlled and limited in order to improve the safety of these facilities and to allow trouble-free operation for these services. This DMZ config-uration creates increased protection against external attacks, but has no protective efficiency against internal security incidents.

4.2. services at DMZ

In principle, all services which are provided on the Internet can be placed in the DMZ. Most often these are web servers that for example provide

9 D. Shindler, SolutionBase: Strengthen network defenses by using a DMZ, TechRepublic, 2005, http://www.techrepublic.com/article/solutionbase-strengthen-network-defenses- by-using-a-dmz/(accessed: 27.02.2017).

53


basic information about the institution, internet shops, mail servers, FTP servers for downloading large files, VoIP servers, which offer digital te-lephony services over the Internet etc. These servers typically need access to the database servers which can also contain sensitive information that must be more protected against attackers than is a standard protection in the DMZ. Therefore, these are placed behind application firewall. Simi-larly e-mail messages and user databases must be more protected against direct access from the Internet but must be directly accessible for e-mail servers that are available on the Internet. Mail server inside the DMZ transmits incoming mail to secure internal mail server.

4.3. Proxy and Reverse Proxy servers

In order to increase security, many institutions install specialized proxy servers (proxies) within DMZ. Employees are forced to use proxy server in order to access to the Internet. This can have also advantage for fre-quently asked pages, which will be stored at proxy and so some bandwidth with Internet is saved. In addition, proxy allows to monitor activity of em-ployees on the Internet and enables to filter access regarding content and policy of the institution.

On the opposite, reverse proxy server is used as an intermediary server for indirect access from the external network, the Internet to the resources in the protected network. For example, providing access to e-mail users who are outside the institution, but prevents direct access to internal pro-tected e-mail server. Only the reverse proxy server has access to the in-ternal server behind the DMZ. Typically, such a mechanism is applied as part of the firewall. There are two basic ways to implement DMZ, the de-militarized zone with one or two firewalls. The advantage of single-DMZ firewall is a lower price, the disadvantages are the high load and critical dependence on one element of the architecture.

5. Infrastructure silo

Infrastructure of organizations and individuals, which consists of network, servers, routers, storage media, power appliances and other components must be physically and electronically designed and implemented secure in order to prevent physical and electronic intrusions. Physical penetra-tion can be eliminated by adequate monitoring of access and biometric systems. Electronic intrusions are eliminated by firewalls and antivirus

54


programs with mostly daily updates and with new virus signatures and malicious software recognition. Zero day virus and malicious software oc-currence must be first examined in dedicated sandboxes and only after that is allowed to pass to critical infrastructure of the organization.

5.1 Antivirus and Protection Against Malicious software

Antivirus and malware protection software is a program or set of programs intended for the prevention, search, detection and removal of viruses and other malicious code, such as worms, Trojans, adware, ransomware, key-loggers etc.10 These tools must be constantly updated, because the com-puters without the latest virus and malware protection are infected within minutes after connecting to the Internet. Companies developing antivirus and malware protection products must renew its products on a daily basis, because there are created more than 60,000 new viral mutations every day and number of attacks is continuously increasing. Basic functions of anti-virus and malware protection products are as follows:– Scan specific files and directories and identify known malware and viruses;– Allow to plan and execute automatically run anti-virus programs;– Initialize at any time to scan suspicious files or the entire computer;– Remove all revealed malicious code, informs the user of this fact, even-

tually only isolate suspicious files;– Database of known malware and viruses signatures is periodically up-

dated as necessary.Antivirus software can be installed on an individual computer, access

gateway servers, or specialized network device. In today’s cloud-based time and the Internet of things it can be also rented as a service in the cloud, or can be integrated as part of the computing device in the car.

5.2 Penetration testing, ethical Hacking

Penetration testing is a method of testing the resistance of organization against cyberattacks11. Ethical hackers use the same methods of testing possible penetration for protected institutions as their less scrupulous op-

10 ciSco, What Is the Difference: Viruses, Worms, Trojans, and Bots?, Security Center. 2016, http://www.cisco.com/c/en/us/about/security-center/virus-differences.html (accessed: 27.02.2017).

11 C.C. Palmer, Ethical hacking, „IBM SYSTEMS JOURNAL“, 2001, Vol 40, No 3, http://pdf.textfiles.com/security/palmer.pdf (accessed: 27.02.2017).

55


ponents. But unlike them, ethical hackers do not use detected holes in the institution defense to their advantage, but after a detailed documenta-tion they provide effective guidance on how to increase information secu-rity for examined institutions.

The aim of ethical hacking is to evaluate the security of the network or infrastructure of the organization. The goal is to find and test all possible weaknesses in protection in order to identify all unauthorized penetra-tion or other harmful activities. Vulnerabilities are usually found in incor-rect or minimum configuration of the system, known or less known bugs in software and hardware, operating system defects or lack of technical countermeasures. Ethical hacking has become very important segment in the field of information security and is also used to investigate the possi-bility of human error in the complex measures in the security protection of the institution. The successful test does not automatically mean that the institution security is 100% guaranteed. It means only that the insti-tution should be resistant to the robotic attacks and penetration attempts performed by less experienced attackers. In principle, every organization and IoT equipment connected to the Internet or providing online services should strengthen its information security by penetration tests. Different and stricter standards apply e.g. for internet payment portals, requiring operators to provide regular penetration tests after each change in the in-frastructure or application. Ethical hacking is offered by many commercial companies and is sold as a service. To qualify for a penetration test to be considered as ethical, it must be done with the consent of the organization or individual whose infrastructure is subject of the test. Information as the results of the test is confidential and its disclosure without permission of the institution is considered a criminal offense. Known is a case in Slo-vakia, the theft of e-mails from the demilitarized zone of National Secu-rity Office through weak password of server administrator, as a warning of the weak protection of government institutions.

5.3 sandbox

In computer security terminology, the term “sandbox” means a security mechanism for the test of running programs in physical separated archi-tecture. It is used frequently to verify untested programs or code, usually from an untrusted source. Thus preventing damage or infection to the pro-duction computers and operating systems. It usually consists of separate

56


technical devices such as CPU, disk and memory. Network access and the possibility of intervention in the structure of the host computer are mostly limited. Programs in sandboxes are verified before entering the real operation, as they may contain viruses or malware. Sandbox can be con-figured as a virtual server with limited penetration possibility to interact with production infrastructure and thus prevent the spread of infection, especially with zero-day infections, whose signatures are not already in the database of known viruses, worms or malicious code.

6. security Intelligence and Analytics Level

6.1 security Information and event Management, sIeM

System for information and event management is a combination of prod-ucts and services by which institution obtains security information man-agement and logs of security events in real time. Network hardware and software generates alarms and messages to the administrators of protect-ed infrastructure. System monitors data from various sources and users behaviour. It monitors user and service authorizations, directory servic-es accesses, and any changes in system configurations. Simultaneously it records all relevant information for audit and monitors all actions after the occurrence of a security incident. The system records obtained data in the correlation, seeks common event properties and combines them into meaningful ties. Data are stored for a long period of time to allow forensic analysis of connected or standalone incidents.

Intrusion Detection Systems (IDS) are devices or software applications that monitor malicious activity of network and computer systems, respec-tively an activity that is not in accordance with the policies of the insti-tution. Each detected suspicious activity is reported to the administrator or recorded centrally in a specialized security system for information and events management, referred to as Security Information and Event Man-agement. SIEM systems combine outputs from multiple sources and use filtering techniques to reduce false alarms. It is a very wide range of sys-tems that can be implemented in SIEM, starting from anti-virus pro-grams to hierarchical systems that monitor the operation of the entire network of the institutions.

Important IDS classification is based on the method of intrusion and event detection. Most are based on detection of signatures, i.e. known groups of code characters that are malware and anomaly detection that captures de-

57


viations from the standard model, normal operation. Such detection is based on a gradual learning IDS system, which recognizes usual normal operation and any unusual deviation raises an alarm in a suitable response system.

Picture No. 2: Security Incident Event Management

Although intrusion detection systems IDS as a part of SIEM and fire-walls both provide increased security to protected computer networks, the difference is mainly that firewall oversees intrusions into the protect-ed network and tries to prevent them. Firewall usually does not report alarm in response to attacks occurring inside the protected network. IDS evaluates suspected intrusions declared by the respective alarms according to the type of incident. IDS also see the incidents that arise in the protect-ed system so that examines the communication in the protected network and identifies known signatures, identification marks of cyber-attacks or unauthorized access and reports them to the operator. If the system is also in a position to terminate suspicious communication, this is an intrusion prevention system (IPS). Typical examples of the deployment of such sys-tems with which we can all meet is the input protection to online banking to recognize typical behaviour of the account holder by unusual methods of potential thieves.

58


7. Advanced security and threat Research Level

Security threats from cyberspace are continuously evolving and changing. The number of attacks is still growing in number and complexity followed by corresponding increase in the losses caused by these attacks. For each institution and the individual it is therefore critical to deploy system for preventing and anticipating attacks. Such system must be permanently up-dated to contain effective security solutions. This layer of advanced secu-rity architecture and research monitors threats at all silos of the described security model. Organizations are facing an enormous increase of data that must be incorporated in this research. Also complexity of threats used in advanced persistent threats is evolving rapidly. Scope of relevant se-curity data continues to broaden dramatically in social media and global event data. Advance in predictive analytic continue to advance. As it is nearly impossible for typical organization to perform even a small portion of this complex research, it is done by specialized companies, which moni-tor threat trends and develop security content for use in security products. If such research should be effective, access to live customer data by live monitoring of managed security services traffic is necessary. Global event monitoring and global reach is an important aspect.

References:

1. Andress J., The Basics of Information Security: Understanding the Fun-damentals of InfoSec in Theory and Practice (2nd ed.). Elsevier Science, 2014.

2. Bremer I., The geopolitics of cybersecurity, “Foreign Policy”, http://foreign policy.com/2011/01/12/the-geopolitics-of-cybersecurity/(accessed: 27.02.2017).

3. ciSco, What Is the Difference: Viruses, Worms, Trojans, and Bots? Secu-rity Center. 2016, http://www.cisco.com/c/en/us/about/security-center/virus-differences.html (accessed: 27.02.2017).

4. Fabian K., Crisis Management Training System For Advanced Security Threats In Cyberspace, Proceedings of IMSCI, Orlando, Florida USA 2014.

5. Fabián K., Melková M., Vybrané otázky kybernetickej bezpečnosti, Belia-num -Vydavateľstvo Univerzity Mateja Bela v Banskej Bystrici, Fakulta politických vied a medzinárodných vzťahov, 2016.

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6. ISO, ISO/IEC 27032:2012 Information technology — Security techniques — Guidelines for cybersecurity, International Organization for Stand-ardization. 2012, http://www.iso.org/iso/iso_catalogue/catalogue_tc/ catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=44375 (accessed: 27.02.2017).

7. Johnson T. A., Cyber-security. Protecting Critical Infrastructures from Cy-ber Attack and Cyber Warfare. CRC Press, 2015.

8. Kazanský R., Melková M., Information Technologies and their Usage in Crisis Management as a Tool to Increase the Quality of Educational Pro-cess, [in:] 15th International Multidisciplinary Scientific Geoconference SGEM 2015. Vol. 3. STEF92 Technology Ltd. Sofia, Bulgaria.

9. EU International Cyberspace Policy, European Union External Action, 2014, http://eeas.europa.eu/policies/eu-cyber-security/index_en.htm (accessed: 27.02.2017).

10. Palmer C.C., Ethical hacking. [in:] IBM SYSTEMS JOURNAL, Vol 40, No 3, 2001, http://pdf.textfiles.com/security/palmer.pdf (ac-cessed: 27.02.2017).

11. Shindler D., SolutionBase: Strengthen network defenses by using a DMZ, TechRepublic, 2005, http://www.techrepublic.com/article/solutionbase- strengthen-network-defenses-by-using-a-dmz/(accessed: 27.02.2017).

12. Terem P., Čajka P., Rýsová L., Slovakia in geopolitical and geo-economic context. 1. vyd. – Praha: Kamil Mařík – Professional Publishing, 2015.

13. Ušiak J., Security cooperation within V4, [in:] Central and Eastern Eu-ropean Political Systems. Metropolitan University in Prague, Prague 2016.


K. Fabián, M. Dobrík, M. Melková, Information Security Model for Crisis Management Simulations, “Security Dimensions. International and Na-tional Studies”, 2017, no 21, p. 44-59, DOI 10.24356/SD/21/2.

Security technologieS


no. 21; 2017 (62–74)DOI 10.24356/SD/21/3

sPecificiTy of leaking niTric aciD from a Tank vehicle

Ing. Michal Orinčák, Ph.D.Žilinská Univerzita, Slovakia

Prof. Ing. Jana Müllerová, Ph.D.Žilinská Univerzita, Slovakia

ABSTRACT

The paper deals with the leakage of nitric acid in road transport (ADR); its specifications, problems and complications during its leakage from the tank into the environment. The first part describes specific characteristics and their means of transport. Following part discusses the experimental investigation of the specific characteristics of HNO3. The experiments on reaction of nitric acid in contact with diesel, gasoline, valvoline engine oil and coolant as well as with samples of common vehicle’s materials such as iron, aluminium, copper, tire rubber, ABS plastic and asphalt. Reactions observed not always met the expectations of strong reactions as described in Security data sheet. The third part describes a possible ways of acid leakage from the tank and its disposal. Recommendation concerning effective action of Fire units are described in order to stop the leaking and minimize the damage caused by nitric acid.

ARTICLE INFO


Key wordsnitric acid, leak, tank, road transport, experiment, metal, asphalt, rubber

Introduction

Transport of dangerous goods includes within the so-called. “Special transports” that include objects and substances requiring transport in

63

Specificity of Leaking Nitric Acid From a Tank Vehicle

terms of non-standard conditions (eg. Packaging, handling, construction vehicle, etc.). This issue is currently addressed by ADR (European Agree-ment concerning the International Carriage of Dangerous Goods)1.

In the national transport of dangerous goods it has been adopted with effect from 19th 1996 Act. 168/1996 Coll. The agreement defined the class of dangerous substances according to their characteristics, de-termine the conditions for their transport, packaging, marking, rules for use and filling out the required documents. It also defines require-ments for vehicles including technical requirements for vehicle accord-ing to each class, limiting the amount of transported goods, supervision, by public and parking2. The top of the listed Kemler code that indicates imminent danger and at the bottom of the rectangle is given an identi-fication number of the substance, which we call the UN code. UN code is characterized by four digits that is associated today about 3 000 sub-stances and mixtures of the substance or mixture is identified. If there are multiple shipments of dangerous goods, the vehicle is labelled at the front and rear and clean orange plates on each side of the eventual tank compartment is a separate table with orange Kemler3 and UN code and marking4.

Transportation of dangerous goods by road network is carried in tanks or tankers of different sizes, which must be made of materials according to prescribed standards, to be able to withstand the effects of dangerous substances. For the carriage of nitric acid are commonly used aluminium tanks with shells and recently began using tanks from corrosion resistant steel Nicrofer 3127 HMO – 31 alloy material rustproof tanks acid at normal temperatures reliably resists and has sufficient strength and high resistance to puncture even if accident. An important part of tanks shall be breakwaters, whose main function is to prevent the spill-free fluid transported and its subsequent impact to the head tank5.

1 A. Čajda, Bezpečne s nebezpečnými vecami, Bratislava 2015, p. 27.2 J. Došek, J.Kokeš, ADR, Praha 2007, p. 46‒50.3 Karta bezpečnostných údajov, Ministerstvo hospodárstva Slovenskej republiky, http://

www.economy.gov.sk/kartabezpecnostnych-udajov/142568s (accessed: 11.03.2016), p. 1‒3.

4 Kemler a UN – označování nebezpečných látek při silniční přepravě, p. 3‒4.5 Sbor dobrovolných hasičů Praha – Zličín: Identifikace nebezpečných látek – Kemler

kód, p. 2.

64

Michal Orinčák, Jana Müllerová

Nitric acid is most often used for the production of fertilizers, explo-sives, etching, and metal dissolution. As component aqua regia is also used for the cleaning and extraction of gold, and the synthesis of chem-icals. Nitric acid is a strong oxidizing agent. Reacts with cyanides, car-bides and powdered metals can take place explosively. The reactions of certain organic substances, e.g. turpentine, are violent and pyrophoric. Concentrated nitric acid stains human skin, yellow (reaction with ker-atin). Nitric acid is unstable in air and light, further extends the russet toxic gaseous carbon dioxide, therefore, kept in bottles of dark glass and double seal. The most commonly produced by reacting nitrogen dioxide with water or hydrogen peroxide.

Specific properties of nitric acid includes in particular its ability to sup-port the fire particularly when reacting with oxygen and organic com-pounds. It represents a strong oxidizing agent. Nitric acid causes severe burns and skin damage. Its vapours are corrosive and irritating effects on eyes and respiratory system. As the acid changes the pH of the water it has a detrimental effect on water organisms6.

The domestic transport (within the country) is considerably more frequent than international transport. There was transported about 310 000 tons of hazardous substances per year in the period 2010 – 2012 in average7. The most often transported dangerous substances in Slovakia are flammable liquids, flammable solids, and gases.

Most Likely Reasons of nitric Acid tank Leakage

The most common reasons of nitric acid tank leakage are following:– Loss of tightness of seal valves and tank shell (ie. Tearing, spills and so on.),– Puncture of the tank shell,– Use of improper tanks,– Operator error during filling or refilling the tank contents.

Loss of tightness in particular drain valve are amongst the most emerging leaks of hazardous substances that tend mostly to 100 liters. Such leakage is easier to stop the spill and disposal, as for the leakage that is caused by piercing the tank, e.g. in a traffic accident. In transfer-

6 Bezpečnostní listy, Penta, p. 3.7 Ročenka dopravy a telekomunikácií 2013, Štatistický úrad Slovenskej republiky, 2014,

p. 128‒132.

65


ring the tank it leads to a situation where the sealing cracks very complex and usually there is a leakage of the substance. Improper use tanks se-lected substances can be classified leaks that occur in our country rarely (mostly foreign carriers concerned). The situation, when used the wrong kind of tanks of nitric acid and was a leak arose in 2010 in the Orava region, where the E77 road in the direction of the village to the city wide Dolny Kubin leaked nitric acid through a crack in the shell of the tank. Also not forgetting the risk of possible leakage of corrosive in its filling or refilling.

experiments on Reactivity of Hno3 with Common Materials

Nitric acid is characterized by its specific properties under the reaction substances contained in the area. When the carriage by road network are particularly fuel, fluids and materials transport unit (eg. A tractor tanker semi-trailers), with which it can respond to uncontrolled and thus compli-cate the procedure itself of its liquidation. When the experiments carried out with nitric acid, we chose fuels and materials that when transporting occur most frequently.

Samples of materials:– Metal – iron,– Metal – aluminium,– Metal – copper,– rubber – tire– ABS plastic,– Asphalt.

Samples of fuel (fuel):– Diesel,– Natural gas 95,– Valvoline engine oil 10W-40,– Coolant G11.

Studied experimental parameters:a) measurement of temperature and pH, of the material,b) The degree of destruction of the material of the reaction,c) Water absorption of the material, e.g. in rubber, plastics and metals is

more of smoothness and porosity of the surface of the sample material, which affects the capture of liquid on its surface (build-up).

66


The degree of destruction of the material:0 without visible damage,1 damage is visible microscope,2 damage is visible by the eye,3 Severe destruction of the material.

The degree of the reaction:0 No reaction,1 weak reaction without visible symptoms,2 quick response to visible manifestation,3 uncontrollable, violent reaction.

Figure1 Samples of oil, diesel, gasoline and coolant

Figure 2 Samples of materials (copper, steel, aluminium, ABS plastic, tire-rubber, asphalt) prepared for experiment

67


Nitric acid solution (65%) in amount of 2 ml was applied in the each sample of fuel, fluids (Fig.1). and solid materials (Fig.2). In the case of a fuel tank and fluid that was a 1: 1 and 1: 5 (5 parts by fuel and 1 part hno3), and the oil was still a ratio of 13: 1 (13 parts of oil, and 1 part hno3). Subsequently, the changes in temperature and pH of the solution as well as the reaction were tracked.

Oil and acid reaction was calm. In a 1: 1 there is a change of color oil which turned white, and the reaction was visible border between the oil and acid. 30 minutes after exposure to diesel changed its density was vis-ibly less dense (loose). In the reaction of 5: 1 a precipitate formed, which in a ratio of 13: 1 was clear and darker. It was confirmed that the greater quantity of oil, at fig. 5.

Figure 3 Microscopic images of the sample of diesel with HNO3 in a ratio of 5:1 and 13:1 after 60 minutes

The reaction of the gasoline and nitric acid in a ratio of 1: 1 was carried out without major changes and reactions, see. Figure 6 and Table 2. There was only a change in the color of gasoline. It became pale and the clear boundary between gasoline and acid was visible. There has thus merging them. In a test at a ratio of 5: 1 (5 parts of gasoline and 1 part acid) solu-tion of gasoline and acid the yellow colour was visible. For both reactions, there was a small increase in temperature, but this was due to the influence of the external environment.

68


Tabl

e 1.

Exp

erim

enta

lly

obse

rved

rea

ctio

ns o

f H

NO

3 and

com

mon

mat

eria

ls f

rom

Apr

il 2

016

rea

ctan

t ty

peD

urat

ion

(min

.)

ph

(hn

o3+

-re

acta

nt)

∆tem

p.D

estru

ctio

n le

vel (

0‒3)

rea

ctio

n le

vel (

0‒3)

obs

erva

tion

dies

el (9

3:7)

150.

50.

75-

1‒2

Loca

l coa

gulat

ion

crea

ted

300.

70.

75-

1‒2

Loca

l coa

gulat

ion

crea

ted

601.

71.

0-

2D

ark

dens

e coa

gulat

ion

gaso

line

(50:

50)

151

0-

1G

asol

ine c

olou

r cha

nged

to w

hite

; vi

sible

boun

dary

bet

ween

reac

tant

s –

subs

tanc

es n

ot al

lied

601

0-

1G

asol

ine c

olou

r cha

nged

to w

hite

; vi

sible

boun

dary

bet

ween

reac

tant

s –

subs

tanc

es n

ot al

lied

valv

olin

e en

gine

oil

60-

--

1T

he o

il de

nse b

ecam

e low

er,

the c

olou

r cha

nged

to li

ghte

r

co

ola

nt

60-

--

1C

oolan

t col

lour

chan

ged

to li

ght-

blue

tire

rub

ber

150.

20

1‒2

1‒2

Solu

tion

chan

ged

colo

ur to

dar

k br

own;

ru

bber

is so

fter a

nd so

aky,

69


300.

40

1‒2

1‒2

Solu

tion

chan

ged

colo

ur to

dar

k br

own;

ru

bber

is so

fter a

nd so

aky,

601.

10

1‒2

1‒2

Solu

tion

chan

ged

colo

ur to

dar

k br

own;

ru

bber

is so

fter a

nd so

aky,

Stee

l30

--

11

Calm

reac

tion,

no

chan

ges v

isibl

e

60-

-1

1C

alm re

actio

n, n

o ch

ange

s visi

ble

90-

-3

3Su

dden

very

stro

ng re

actio

n, ir

ritat

ive

gase

s of N

Ox

relea

sed

coP

Per

15-

-3

3Ve

ry st

rong

reac

tion,

irrit

ativ

e gas

es o

f N

Ox

relea

sed

aSP

ha

lt15

--

22

Asp

halt

beca

me s

opht

er

and

easy

to sc

ratc

ha

BS

Pla

Stic

90-

-1

1C

alm re

actio

n, m

icros

copi

c cha

nges

ob-

serv

ed

Allu

min

Ium

90-

-1

1C

alm re

actio

n, m

icros

copi

c ch

ange

s obs

erve

d

70


Figure 4 Gasoline sample before the experiment, and with hno3 in a ratio of 1:1 at 60 minutes and microscopic images

Reaction of rubber (tire) with nitric acid was carried out quickly with visible signs of its effects on the sample (Fig. 5) as stated in the Table 1. During the experiment a solution which is coloured brown was created and the rubber became significantly softer and more absorbent. The final weight of the sample before the reaction was 2.04 g. After about 60 min-utes of reaction the weight raised up to 2.24 g.

Fig. 5 rubber sample before attempting a HNO3 and after 60 minutes, and microscopic images

Proposal of Leakage Disposal

Proposal 1 – Leaks from tank

With the loss of tightness it is important to try to close the leak sealing compound (acid-resistant) and acid then need to be pumped into another tank or vessel. The pump used must be acid-resistant, which is the most

71


frequently made of plastic (Figure 6). If the damaged tank has the empty chamber (section) the acid can be pumped out of the damaged section in to the blank section, which is standardly left empty from safety reasons.

Figure 6 Pneumatic acid diaphragm pump

Proposal 2 – A crack in the tank

At situations where there is a puncture in the tank its size matters. In case of smaller cracks it is possible to stop the leak the acid devices for sealing cracks (a seal wedge, sealing compound, strap etc.). For larger cracks it leads to leakage of the acid that can be rapidly pumped out of the tank, either intact, and the empty chamber, and a new tank or collection container.

Proposal 3 – Improper tank

When using an inappropriate type of tank, leaking acid is very difficult and often impossible to stop. Tank is broken in several places, and it forms new and new cracks. Pumping of the acid into a new and suitable tank or collection container should be started immediately. Mind the sewage network in surrounding area. The acid resistant pillows need to be used to cover the sewage covers to prevent its contamination.

Nitric acid is most commonly disposed off by neutralization with hy-drated lime. A further decontamination agent can be sodium carbonate or

72


potassium carbonate, or a solution of lime milk. Also improvised materials can be used e.g. a soil, a sand, a crushed limestone or a cement.

Figure 7 Neutralization of nitric acid leak hydrated lime

Attempts fuel with nitric acid were performed by determining the ratio of sample to alkali. They were most common ratios of 1: 1, 5: 1 (5 parts of the sample tank: 1 part HNO3), and the fuel ratio of 13: 1 (13 parts of oil: 1 part HNO3).

When you try to gasoline have changed the colour of gasoline and was visible boundary between gasoline and acid. In the experiment with diesel in various proportions to the formation of a precipitate it occurred, respec-tively. what was more oil, the precipitate was visible. The results of exper-iments with motor oil creates less dense oil and changed its color to pale. The color change occurred in the reaction and the cooling liquid, where in the substance is changed to light blue.

In these experiments, we expected response turmoil since the safety data sheets (or academic literature) often report an increased possibility

73


of fire and explosion, combined with the corrosive fuel. From this per-spective, the reactions were calm, fully controllable without any indication of an unexpected phenomenon. Most of the samples was the change in the structure visible microscope.

Experiments Material and nitric acid were made by us on various sam-ples of the materials were applied 2 ml HNO3, and we followed the course of the reaction and the change in the sample materials. Media reaction with the acid was very stormy and expressive, at which there was a leakage of harmful NOx gases and irritating. When the iron experiment initially be run peacefully, after 90 minutes, there was a vigorous reaction and re-lease of harmful NOx gases and irritating. The reaction of aluminium and ABS plastic was peaceful and without visible changes occurred only dam-age that was visible to the microscope. Last examined samples were rubber (tire) and asphalt. Rubber when exposed to acid softened and turned clear solution was strongly absorbing. Asphalt applications after acid was sig-nificantly softer and it was easy to make an indentation into it.

For these experiments show that in terms of safety should be avoid-ed contact corrosive of iron and copper, which are increasingly found in the transport unit and of leaking acid can damage the vehicle. Especially risky is corrosive effect on iron, which from the beginning of the reaction occurs without visible signs, but after about 90 minutes, there is a very strong reaction with visible corrosive to iron.

Another danger is clear from the reaction of nitric acid with rubber (tires), which upon contact with the acid becomes significantly softer and absorbent. Cracking occurs on the surface of rubber material that under-mine the integrity of the surface. In contact with the asphalt acid vigorous reaction occurs (boiling acid to the asphalt), wherein the time of the as-phalt loses its hardness and caustic spill over into the upper layer (an in-crease in the porosity of the surface of sample asphalt).

When released caustics from the tank or from another tray (eg. station-ary) The immediate requirement is such as to prevent puddles from which under appropriate meteorological conditions (eg. wind, higher air temper-ature and the earth’s surface, higher humidity, etc.). An increase in evap-oration acid and its response with the environment (smoky effect – “acid smokes”). In this case, it is appropriate to establish catch hrádzky of inert material to prevent its further fluid to flow along the surface of the ground and establish a sorbate that can be easily removed from the surface than in the liquid.

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If the directly affected equipment and gear-cutting or members of their body surface, it is necessary to immediately start by washing (rinsing) wa-ter jet, which washed away and diluted alkali. The decontamination pro-cess is simple, in practice sufficiently effective and fast, in contrast to time, technical and material-demanding procedure and the subsequent applica-tion of a suitable neutralizing agent.

References

1. Čajda A., Bezpečne s nebezpečnými vecami, Bratislava 2015. 2. J. Došek, J. Kokeš, ADR, Praha 2007. 3. Karta bezpečnostných údajov, Ministerstvo hospodárstva Slovenskej

republiky, http://www.economy.gov.sk/kartabezpecnostnych-udajov/ 142568s (accessed: 11.03.2016).

4. Kemler a UN – označování nebezpečných látek při silniční přepravě. Požáry, http://www.pozary.cz/clanek/50601kemler-a-un-oznacovani- nebezpecnych-latek-pri-silnicni-preprave/(accessed: 11.03.2016).

5. Sbor dobrovolných hasičů Praha – Zličín: Identifikace nebezpečných látek – Kemler kód, http://www.sdhzlicin.cz/index.php?option=com_content& view=article&id=101:id entifikace-nl&catid=51:nebezpene-latky&Item id=74 (accessed: 11.03.2016).

6. Bezpečnostní listy, PENTA, http://www.pentachemicals.eu/bezpecnostni- listy.php?subcat=12#seznam (accessed: 11.03.2016).

7. Ročenka dopravy a telekomunikácií 2013, Štatistický úrad Slovenskej repub-liky, http://www7.statistics.sk/wps/wcm/connect/a87b6926-af10‒4733‒ 9582-e0765ad2fb6e/Rocenka_dopravy_post_a_telekomunikacii_2013.pdf?MOD=AJPERES&CACHEID=a87b6926-af10‒4733‒9582-e0765ad2fb6e (accessed: 11.03.2016).


M. Orinčák, J. Müllerová, Specif icity of Leaking Nitric Acid From a Tank Vehicle, “Security Dimensions. International and National Studies”, 2017, no 21, p. 62-74, DOI 10.24356/SD/21/3.


no. 21; 2017 (75–83)DOI 10.24356/SD/21/4

3D small-scale fire moDelling exPerimenTs anD TesTing PreParaTion

Ing. Maroš KrajčírŽilinská Univerzita, Slovakia


ABSTRACT

The paper deals with the problematic of small-scale fire tests, its preparation phase and fire experiments connected to Flashover phenomena. Real 3D experiments in small-scale need to be prepared in sense of exactness by exact calculations including mathematic π- non-dimensional groups in order to make a functional small-scale model representing the full scale modelling in the effective way. The interior represented by the cribs made mostly of wood, polymer and other materials common in rooms or offices need to be prepared in sense of their amount, position and porosity. After that the construction of the small-scale model can be started with respect to all the dimensions, amount and proportion of material calculations.

ARTICLE INFO


Key wordssmall-scale modelling, fire experiment, polyamide, flashover, 3D- modelling principles, wood

1. Introduction

In past decades, scale models have been utilized in numerous fields. From civil to aerospace engineering, scale models demonstrate how a final prod-

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Maroš Krajčír, Jana Müllerová

uct may perform. Models have been used to visualize interactions between various parts of a design, to experiment with different design ideas, and to improve the overall product.

Scale modelling can allow fire investigators to replicate specific fire dy-namics at a dramatically reduced cost. A wood cribs are used to represent the wide range of fuels that investigators encounter. Modelling requires an in depth understanding of fire physics. Scaling a particular fire begins with assessing the governing conservation equations and selecting the ap-propriate dimensionless groups and scaling principles1.

Full scale Experimental modelling of real fire accident situation is the most probably the oldest form of experimental fire engineering. Although, this way is very costly, the results in form of measured data of fire-relevant physical quantities such as temperatures, heat release rate, mass loss and their development during the experiment are very valuable (Table 1.)2. On the other hand the disadvantages are connect-ed to time-consuming preparation, human resources required, funding. The repeating of full scale experiment is also very rare3.

Table 1. Comparing of fire modelling systems4

criteria Full-scale modelling Small-scale modellingaccuracy high high

Relative costs [€] Ten thousand HundredsProfessional competence Upper intermediate Upper intermediate

Preparation time Months WeeksNumber of iterations Very limited Limited

Many data and many realistic measurements are needed. But full scale modelling is very slow. A full-scale model takes too much time for. Es-pecially models of entire buildings are very rare. And this is the place for

1 B. Karlsson, J. G. Quintiere, Enclosure f ire Dynamics, CRC Press LLC., London 2000, p. 123.

2 J. Müllerová, R. Michalovič, The effect of different fuel types on the flashover phenomena in 3D model f ire experiment, [in:] SGEM 2016: ecology, economics, education and legislation. Albena, Bulgaria, vol. II, STEF92 Technology, Sofia 2016, p. 815.

3 J. G. Quintiere, Fundamentals of f ire phenomena, University of Maryland, 2006, p. 235.4 J. Müllerová, R. Michalovič, The effect…, p. 816.

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3D Small-Scale Fire Modelling Experiments and Testing Preparation

small-scale modelling. It enables much more iterations at the same time comparing to full-scale experiments. Its accuracy is comparable to full-scale modelling. The biggest advantage is the price for experiment reflect-ing much shorter preparation time. It enables more iterations in various conditions. The output data might be used in the PC modelling5.

2. Flashover

The flashover is a near-simultaneous ignition of most of the directly ex-posed combustible material in an enclosed area. The prediction of flasho-ver appearance is the key to prevent severe accidents affecting fire fighters. Early warning of Flashover prevents fatalities of Fire & Rescue Corps6. The extended knowledge on Flashover conditions, material sources, tem-peratures, statistics and probabilities of its appearance will help to increase the fire safety of buildings in cooperation to material and construction engineers7. The vision is to construct the buildings with such interiors having 0% probability to start the fire leading to flashover state8.

Flashover is near-simultaneous ignition of most of the directly ex-posed combustible material in an enclosed area. The criteria for flasho-ver usually require9:– To achieve a temperature among 500‒600 °C,– Min. heat flux on the floor 15 to 20 kW. m-2,– Min. mass burnt per second: 40−80 g/s,– Critic temp. under ceiling 600,– Flame tongues from the vents,– Heat instability (among HRR and Heat losts).

5 M. Orinčák, R. Švach, Využitie simulačných programov a geoinformačných systémov v pod-mienkach HaZZ, [in:] Geoúdaje pre podporu záchranárskych jednotiek, technická univer-zita vo Zvolene, 2011, p. 161.

6 G. Heskestad, Modelling of enclosure f ires, “Combustion Institute Symposium on Com-bustion”, 1973, No 14, p. 1027.

7 M. Orinčák, J. Dvorský, Analysis and comparation of general f ire indicators in Czech Re-public and Slovak Republic, [in:] Advances in f ire & safety engineering 2015, technická univerzita, 2015, p. 212.

8 P. A. Croce, Y. Xin, Scale modelling of quasi – steady wood crib, “Fire Safety Journal”, 2005, No 40, p. 135.

9 P. G. Holdon, S. R. Bishop, Experimental and teoretical models of flashover, “Fire Safe-ty Journal”, 1993, No 21, http://www.sciencedirect.com.sci-hub.org/science/article/pii/037971129390030T, p. 259.

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There are various software simulations trying to reflect the variabili-ty of interior material, construction shape, anti-fire elements and systems within the constructions like sprinklers, fire barrier, chemical fire retardants, sensors and alarms of early warning etc. The highest accuracy still belongs to full-scale models. Full-scale modelling is very often used to get the input data for PC modelling. The realistic accuracy is the biggest advantage10.

3. small scale modelling application

The prototype is a building room with 5300mm×4850mm floor and 2600mm height (inner dimensions) (Figure 1). The wall mate-rial of the prototype is assumed to be bricks and the ceiling is made of steel beams. The thickness of the compartment walls in the prototype is 450 mm.

Figure 1 Geometry of the prototype compartment11

Model at scale are designed. The model with 1400mm×1300mm floor and 750 mm height (inside dimensions)12. The inner walls of the model were covered with mineral wool 5 cm thick (Figure 2). The material was found out thanks to fundamental relations of scaling. Mineral wool was

10 M. Wang, Scale modelling of structural behavior in f ire, Doctoral Thesis, Maryland: Uni-versity of Maryland, 2006, p. 79; Ľ. Vrábľová, Modelovanie rizikových situácií v trenažéri na nelineárne formy požiarov, Dizertačná práca, FBI, Žilinská univerzita 2015, p. 38.

11 V. Reichel, Stanovení požadavků na stavební konstrukce z hlediska požární bezpečnosti, [in:] Svaz požární ochrany ČSSR, 1 ed. Praha 1981, p. 313.

12 M. Orinčák, I. Coneva, Účinnosť plynových stabilných hasiacich zariadení a sprinkler-ových stabilných hasiacich zariadení, [in:] Riešenie krízových situácií v špecifickom pros-tredí, Žilinská univerzita, Žilina 2016.

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fixed to 1.25 cm thick plasterboard embedded in the metal frame (3mm thick and 30mm wide).

Figure 2 Geometry of the model compartment

With the help of glue for thermal insulation systems was sealed miner-al wool to drywall. Closing of outer walls was carried out by screws placed in 15 cm intervals (Figure 3). During the tests, the material was exposed directly to the hot gases.

Figure 3 1/4-scale compartments

4. Fuel source

The source of fuel for the fire test were 60% of a wood and 40% of a pol-yamide placed inside the closed space (Figure 4). The wood used for lumber represented spruce wood with 15% humidity. The total weight of wood was 12.5 kg and polyamide was 4.3 kg. It is representing at full dimension fire load of 30 kg.m-2 of floor space. Packages were distributed into 6 boundaries, creating the streets, where the wood wool was added 0.3 kg (weight ratio of cotton and wood chips in a ratio of 1:70). Initi-

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ation of Fire was performed by electrically ignited 0.03 liters of alcohol. With emphasis on safety, fire initiation was carried out with the assistance of a firefighter.

Figure 4 Configuration of wood cribs

Into the interior we placed six cages (Figure 5.). In the experiments, the most commonly used gas burner, a container of combustibles or fuel bundle of wood. The choice of fuel depends on the required maximum temperature compared with respect to a real fire (the prototype). Then it reaches relatively the same temperature, heat flux and other characteristics of the model at full scale. Wooden crates are minimized by dimensionless groups. The rate of heat flow is controlled by the number and dimensions of the prisms and the spaces between them.

Figure 5 Configuration of fuel source

5. temperature measurement

The results of measurement are as follows (Figure 6.). Maximum tem-peratures under the ceiling were 816,3 °C were measured at the time

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of 1195s. Flashover time was 362s. Of course the recorded tempera-ture selected thermocouples can be observed differences especially when the floor temperature.

Figure 6 Compararison of prototype (up) and model (down)

Values of monitored parameters were recorded by measuring panel type Almemo 5690‒1 with K-type thermocouple. Inside the space is located 15 thermocouples. Thermocouple and compensating cable were connect-ed to the control panel ALMEMO 5690‒1. Registration of temperatures was carried out in 2-second intervals.

Conclusion

In case of fire modelling in a small scale, the entry test was necessary to find out the accuracy of the application of the laws of reducing on se-

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lected object. Modelling on a reduced scale using dimensionless groups for compliance with the criteria of decreasing provides very similar results as a model in full scale. Modelling on a reduced scale can also make use of the forensic detection of fires or causes fire engineering. Fire test shows that the proposed method of reducing a confined space is useful for con-tinuous fire tests. During the experiment it was very similar, including the prototype of the phenomenon of flashover. The results of both exper-iments confirm the high conformity with the model in full scale. We can say that models in reduced scale represent a large, yet underused potential for obtaining input data in modern computer programs that simulate fires or evacuating the accuracy of the model at full scale.

References

1. Croce P. A., Xin Y. Scale modelling of quasi – steady wood crib, “Fire Safety Journal”, 2005, No 40, p. 135.

2. Heskestad G., Modelling of enclosure f ires, “Combustion Institute Sym-posium on Combustion”, 1973, No 14.

3. Holdon P. G., Bishop S. R., Experimental and teoretical models of flasho-ver, “Fire Safety Journal”, 1993, No 21, http://www.sciencedirect.com.sci-hub.org/science/article/pii/037971129390030T.

4. Karlsson B., Quintiere J. G., Enclosure f ire Dynamics, CRC Press LLC., London 2000.

5. Müllerová J., Michalovič R., The effect of different fuel types on the flash-over phenomena in 3D model f ire experiment, [in:] SGEM 2016: ecology, economics, education and legislation. Albena, Bulgaria, vol. II, STEF92 Technology, Sofia 2016.

6. Orinčák M., Dvorský J., Analysis and comparation of general f ire indica-tors in Czech Republic and Slovak Republic, [in:] Advances in f ire & safety engineering 2015, Technická univerzita, 2015, p. 212.

7. Orinčák M., Švach R., Využitie simulačných programov a geoinformačných systémov v podmienkach HaZZ, [in:] Geoúdaje pre podporu záchranárskych jednotiek, Technická univerzita vo Zvolene, 2011.

8. Orinčák M., Coneva I., Účinnosť plynových stabilných hasiacich zariadení a sprinklerových stabilných hasiacich zariadení, [in:] Riešenie krízových situácií v špecifickom prostredí, Žilinská univerzita, Žilina 2016.

9. Quintiere J. G., Fundamentals of f ire phenomena, University of Mary-land, 2006.

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10. Reichel V., Stanovení požadavků na stavební konstrukce z hlediska požární bezpečnosti, [in:] Svaz požární ochrany ČSSR, 1 ed. Praha 1981.

11. Vrábľová Ľ., Scale modelling of structural behavior in f ire, Doctoral the-sis, Maryland: University of Maryland, 2006.

12. Wang M., Scale modelling of structural behavior in f ire, Doctoral thesis, Maryland: University of Maryland, 2006.


M. Krajčír, J. Müllerová, 3D Small-Scale Fire Modelling Experiments and Testing Preparation, “Security Dimensions. International and National Studies”, 2017, no 21, p. 75-83, DOI 10.24356/SD/21/4.

holiStic PerSPective of KineSiological aSPectS

of Security culture


no. 21; 2017 (86–116)DOI 10.24356/SD/21/5

DisTribuTion of minimal anD maximal values of The locaTion of The cenTre of Pressure in The fronTal anD sagiTTal Planes in healThy boys anD boys wiTh milD inTellecTual DisabiliTy ParTiciPaTing in 12-week equesTrian classes

Anna Mazur-Rylska, Ph.D.University of Physical Education in Krakow, POLAND

Assoc. Prof. Tadeusz Ambroży, Ph.D.University of Physical Education in Krakow, POLAND

Assoc. Prof. Dariusz Mucha, Ph.D.University of Physical Education in Krakow, POLAND

Jarosław Omorczyk, Ph.D.University of Physical Education in Krakow, POLAND

Dorota Ambroży, Ph.D.University of Physical Education in Krakow, POLAND

Wioletta Mikuľáková, Ph.D.University of Prešov in Prešov, SLOVAK REPUBLIC

Assoc. Prof. Stanisław Gulak, Ph.D.Podhale State College of Applied Sciences in Nowy Targ, POLAND

Ewa Puszczałowska-Lizis, Ph.D.University of Rzeszów, POLAND

Lucia Kendrová, Ph.D.University of Prešov in Prešov, SLOVAK REPUBLIC

Dawid Mucha, B.A.University of Physical Education in Krakow, POLAND

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Distribution of Minimal and Maximal Values of the Location…

ABSTRACT

Humans maintain balance in the vertical position through random movements that result from instability of the body supported in two points. These tracking movements are responsible for the motor activity focused on maintaining body balance. The role of the postural control system is to choose a strategy, that is, the behaviour as a response to stimuli and regaining the balance through coordinated activity of the muscles that stabilize the talocrural and hip joints that perform movements in the frontal and sagittal planes. The aim of this study is to evaluate the effect of equestrian classes on postural balance in the frontal and sagittal balance in healthy boys aged 15 to 17 years and boys at the same age with mild intellectual disability. The study examined 100 randomized boys aged 15 to 17 years with mild intellectual disability and healthy boys. The study participants were divided into two groups: experimental group, who participated for 12 weeks in equestrian classes and the control group, with boys attending outdoor or indoor physical education classes. Before and after completion of the study, both experimental and control groups were diagnosed by means of Accu SwayPlus force plate. Maximum and minimum locations of the position of the centre of pressure (COP) with respect to the base of support on the platform were evaluated in the frontal and sagittal planes. The description of the parameters was based on the arithmetic mean, maximal and minimal value, scatter diagram and percentage distribution of values. Correlation of the parameters was also evaluated. Significant changes were found in the experimental groups after horse-riding classes, which pointed to the improvement in balance response, particularly in the sagittal plane, both in terms of minimal and maximal values. The character of these changes was similar: value of body sway in the sagittal plane was reduced and the higher percentage of minimal values was recorded for each parameter in both planes after the equestrian effect. Correlations were found between maximum position of the centre of pressure (COP) in the frontal plane and minimal and maximal position of the centre of pressure in the sagittal plane. All the significant changes and trends found for the experimental group which occurred after 12 weeks of equestrian classes suggest improved parameters of balance. The lack of changes in balance parameters in the control group shows that the equestrian classes help develop balance abilities in healthy boys aged 15 to 17 years and, to a lesser extent, in those with mild intellectual disability.

ARTICLE INFO


Key wordsstabilographic parameters, balance, horse riding, mild intellectual disability, correlation

Introduction

The ability to maintain balance in various conditions depends on individual factors of a person. These factors can be compared with factors observed in

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Tadeusz Ambroży, Jarosław Omorczyk et at.

other people and can be developed through a specific learning process un-til a certain limit that depends on specific aptitudes of a person is reached, depending on the body built, age and health status1. The prerequisite for explanation of the mechanism behind balance control in standing position is an assumption that maintaining balance represents a dynamic process. Human body moves permanently and is subject to constant sway while evaluation of the process of maintaining balance results from the analysis of the level of displacements of the point where ground reaction forces are applied, representing the centre of gravity2.

Maintaining and regulation of body balance is closely related to the pro-cess of motor learning. Both processes occur in the nervous system based on the same system of receptors and effectors. The learning process is con-trolled in human body by the sensory system, which is closely correlated to the system that processes information (the central nervous system) and motor system, which is used to perform a particular activity3.

1 A. C. Alonso, L. Mochizuki, N.M. Luna, F Barbieri, J. Greve, The importance of sen-sory information for the postural control: is the inverted pendulum important for the stat-ic balance control, “International Society of Biomechanics- Brasil- Balance”, Gait & Locomotion 2013; G. Jaśkiewicz, M. Golema, Próba obiektywizacji cech człowieka warunkujących utrzymanie równowagi, Rozprawy Naukowe AWF, Wrocław 1983, nr 21, p. 135‒167; M. Golema, Biomechaniczne badania regulacji równowagi u człowieka, Studia i Monografie AWF, Wrocław 1988, nr 2, p. 48‒67; M.R. Ka-lina, W. Jageiłło, B.J. Barczyński, The method evaluate the body balance disturbation tolerance skills-validation procedure of the “Rotational Test”, “Archives of Budo” 2013, nr 9, p. 59‒80; F. Qiu, M.H. Cole, K.W. Davids, Enhanced somatosensory information decreases postural sway in older people, “Gait& Posture” 2012, nr 35 (4), p. 630‒635; M. Sedliak, J. Cvečka, V. Tirpakova, S. Löfler, S. Nejc, H. Kern, D. Hamar, Reliability of novel postural sway task test, “European Journal Translational Myology- Basic Ap-plied Myology” 2013, nr 23 (3), p. 81‒84.

2 G. Juras, Koordynacyjne uwarunkowania procesu uczenia się utrzymywania równowagi ciała, AWF, Katowice 2003, p. 23–35; O. Dzurkova, F. Hlavacka, Velocity of Body Lean Evoked by Leg muscle Vibration Potentiate the Effects of Vestibular Stimulation on Pos-ture, “Physiol. Res” 2007, nr 56, p. 829‒832; N. Adamcova, F. Hlavacka, Modification of human postural responses to soleus muscle vibration by rotation of visual scene, “Gait & Posture” 2007, nr 25, p. 99‒105.

3 B. Czabański, Wybrane zagadnienia uczenia się i nauczania techniki sportowej, Wy-dawnictwa AWF, Wrocław 1991, II ed; M. Held-Ziółkowska, Organizacja zmysłowa i biomechanika układu równowagi, „Magazyn Otolaryngologiczny” 2006, nr 5, p. 39‒46; A. Wit. (ed.), Wartości normatywne do oceny asymetrii chodu i postawy stojącej człowieka, Studia i Monografie AWF, Warszawa 2012, p. 101‒126.

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Maintaining of balanced posture represents the effect of using the mechanism of corrective adjustment4. This type of postural adjust-ment is a response to the stimuli received from proprioceptors that provide information about disturbing factors. They have a character of compen-satory reactions for the motor system controlled by the nervous system5. Muscular activity during standing on both feet has to be controlled in order to maintain the centre of mass over the base of support. The base of support is the area of support for feet, while the centre of gravity moves in the sagittal and frontal planes6. However, the heuristic model of human balance assumes that there is an auxiliary safety margin, which means that the area of stability is greater than the base of support7.

The balancing reactions can be considered as an internal (closed) motor habit, with the stimuli originating from the internal environment of hu-man body and external (open), which represents the response to the exter-nal stimuli8. Motor activity that humans experience during horse-riding 4 G. Juras, Koordynacyjne uwarunkowania procesu uczenia się utrzymywania równowagi

ciała, AWF, Katowice 2003, p. 23–35. 5 M.L. Latash, Eqiulibrium-point hypothesis and internal inverse modeles, [in:] J. Raczek,

Z. Waśkiewicz, G. Juras (ed.), Curent research in motor control, AWF, Katowice 2000, p. 44‒49.

6 M. Golema, Stabilność pozycji stojącej, Studia i Monografie AWF, Wrocław 1987, nr 17, p. 5–19; D. A. Winter, Stiffness Control of Balance in quiet Standing, “J. Neurophysiol” 1998, nr 80 (3), p. 1211‒1221; Cz. Giemza, T. Skolimowski, B. Ostrowska, Równo-waga ciała u osób ze zmianami zwyrodnieniowymi w stawach biodrowych, „Medycyna Sportowa” 2000, nr 12, p. 9‒11; Cz. Giemza, B. Ostrowska, K. Barczyk, Porównanie poziomu równowagi statycznej młodych łyżwiarzy f igurowych z ich rówieśnikami, którzy nie uprawiają sportu, „Medycyna Sportowa” 2007, nr 1, p. 42‒45; A. Mazur-Rylska, T. Ambroży, Zmienność równowagi i postawy ciała u młodzieży uczestniczących w zaję-ciach hippicznych, EAS, Kraków 2010, p. 1‒181; A.C. Kasse, G.G. Santana, C.R. Schar-lack, Results from the Balance Rehabilitation Unit in Benign Paraxymal Position Vertigo, “Braz J Otorhinolaryngol” 2010, nr 76 (5), p. 623‒629; N. Kessler, M.H. Gonanaca, F.C. Gonanca, Balance Rehabilitation unit (BRUTM) posturography in relapsing remit-ting multiple sclerosis, “Arq Neuropsiquiatar” 2011, nr 69 (3), p. 485‒490.

7 J.W. Błaszczyk, L. Czerwosz, Stabilność posturalna w procesie starzenia, ”Gerontologia Polska”, 2005, nr 13, p. 25–36.

8 A. Polonyova, F. Hlavacka, Human postural responses to different frequency vibrations of lowe leg muscle, ”Physial Res” 2001, nr 50, p. 405‒410; S. Gomez, M. Patel, M. Mag-nusson, L. Johansson, E. Einarsoon, P. Fransson, Differences between body movement adaptation to calf and neck muscle vibratory proprioceptive stimulation, ”Gait & Posture” 2009, nr 30 (1), p. 93‒99; N. Adamcova, F. Hlavacka, Modification of human postural responses to soleus muscle vibration by rotation of visual scene, “Gait & Posture” 2007, nr 25, p. 99‒105.

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represent a source of external stimuli received through the plane of con-tact of buttocks with the horse’s back and transferred through the pelvis in the central position to the analyser in order to return feedback from the receiver to the horse in the form of the motor response. With each step of a horse, the rider moves according to a specific pattern that makes him or her moving to the front or back, to the side, up and down. This type of effect on the pelvis and body trunk is significant for development of a stable, balanced posture9.

Horse riding is not only restricted to healthy children. Children with mild intellectual disability (F70, II=50–69 according to the International Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems ICD–10 created by the World Health Organization) show poorer psychomotor activity that depends on the level of disability, which also translates into their balance reactions10. Physical and motor development of disabled children is affected by the same factors as development of healthy children. However, the effect of these factors is disturbed, which is most likely to be caused by the fac-tors responsible for intellectual disability. Intellectual disability is considered from the standpoint of dynamic categories since a specific development po-tential is observed in people affected by this problem11. The substantial im-

9 I. Strauß, Neurofizjologiczna gimnastyka na koniu, Kraków 1996; M. Rosenzweig, Znaczenie ruchu konia dla jeźdźca, [in:] Terapeutyczna jazda konna II, Fundacja Hipo-terapia, Kraków 2004 p. 81‒82; C.E. Lang, J.R. Mac Donald, C. Gnys, An observational study of outpatient therapy for people with hemiparestis post- stroke, “Journal of Neurologic Physical Therapy“ 2007, nr 31, p. 3‒10; S. Long, Hipotherapy as a Toll for Improving Motor skills, Postural Stability and Self Confidence in Cerebral Palsy and Multiple Sclerosis, “Sound Neuroscience: An Undergraduate Neuroscience Journal” 2013, vol. 1, Iss.2, Article 3.

10 L. Boratto, P. Morasso. C. Re, A new look at posturographic analysis in the clinical con-text: sway- density vs. other parameterization techniques, “Motor Control” 2002 nr 6, p. 246‒270; A. Czownicka, Upośledzenie umysłowe: szczególny przypadek zaburzenia rozwoju, [in:] A. Strumińska (ed.) Psychopedagogiczne aspekty hipoterapii dzieci i młodzieży niepełnosprawnej intelektualnie, PWRiL, Kraków, 2003, p. 47–65; T.P. Al-loway, K.J. Temple, A comparison of working memory skills and learning in children with developmental coordination disorder and moderate learning diff iculties, “Applied Cogni-tive Psyhology” 2007, nr 21, p. 473‒487; A. Mazur-Rylska, T. Ambroży, Zmienność równowagi i postawy ciała u młodzieży uczestniczących w zajęciach hippicznych, eaS, Kraków 2010, p. 1‒181; A. Zafeiridis, P. Giagazouglou, K. Dipla, K. Salonikidis, C. Karra, E. Kellis, Muscle fatigue during entrtiment exercise individuals with mental retardation, “Research on Developmental Disabilities” 2010, nr 31, p. 388‒396.

11 E. Zosgórnik, Zróżnicowanie rozwoju somatycznego i motorycznego uczniów szkół nor-malnych i specjalnych dla umysłowo upośledzonych, ”Wych Fiz i Sport” 1989, nr 41,

91


provement of certain motor skills in people with intellectual disability can be achieved through motor rehabilitation, such as equestrian classes aimed at receiving all motor stimulation of the horse and transforming horse-rid-ing into sensorimotor training to ensure proper and balanced posture.

Aim of the study

The purpose of this study was to determine changes in development of bal-ance in boys aged 15 to 17 with mild intellectual disability and healthy boys through comparison of maximal and minimal positions of the centre of pressure in the frontal and sagittal planes during relaxed standing be-fore and after 12 weeks of equestrian classes. We also asked the specific research questions:1. How did the value of the position of the centre of pressure in the sagittal

plane change in the free standing position following 12 weeks of equestri-an classes in healthy children and children with mild intellectual disability?

2. How did the value of the position of the centre of pressure in the frontal plane change in the free standing position following 12 weeks of equestri-an classes in healthy children and children with mild intellectual disability?

3. Are there correlations between stabilographic parameters in healthy children and those with mild intellectual disability who participated in the 12-week equestrian classes?The following research hypotheses were adopted:

1. Equestrian classes should improve control of the process of maintain-ing balance in the free standing position in the sagittal plane in both healthy children and children with mild intellectual disability.

2. Equestrian classes should improve control of the process of maintaining balance in the free standing position in the frontal plane in both healthy children and children with mild intellectual disability.

3. The likelihood of certain correlations between the parameters was assumed.

p. 41–63; M. Łazuga, Znaczenie aktywności f izycznej w rehabilitacji psychospołecznej osób z niepełnosprawnością, ”Med Sportiva” 2004, nr 8, Supp 2, p. 78; J. Piłat, Hipo-terapia a słownik bierny dzieci z niepełnosprawnością intelektualną, ”Przegląd Hipoter-apeutyczny” 2006, nr 2, p. 8–11; M. Moghadam, H. Ashayeri, M. Salavati, Reliability of center of pressure measures of postural stability in health older adults: effects of postural task diff iculty and cognitive load, ”Gait & Posture” 2011, nr 33 (4), p. 651‒655; P. Giag-azoglou, F. Arabatzi, K. Dipla, M. Liga, E. Kellis, Effect of a hippotherapy intervention program on static balance and strength in adolescents with intellectual disabilities, ”Res Dev Disabil” 2012, nr 33, p. 2265‒2270.

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Material and Methods

The experiment was approved by the Bioethics Committee of the Medical Chamber (No. 3/2009). The study examined 50 students with mild intel-lectual disability from the Special Education Centre in Leżajsk, Poland and 50 students from the Agricultural School Complex – Centre of Vocational Training in Nawojowa, Poland. All of them were boys aged 15 to 17. The in-clusion criteria for the experiment was mild intellectual disability diagnosed by a psychologist and school guidance counsellor in the case of the group of children with intellectual disability and consent obtained from parents or legal guardians of all the participants of the equestrian classes. Each group was divided into the control and experimental subgroups. The experimental groups with 25 participants were involved in equestrian classes for 12 week, three times a week for 45 minutes in the Equestrian Centre in Leżajsk, Poland (the group of children with mild intellectual disability) and in the Student’s Horse-Riding Club in Nawojowa (group of healthy children). The groups of healthy and intellectually disabled people with 25 partici-pants were control groups and participated in the physical exercise classes with the same duration as the experimental group, based on general fitness exercises according to the curricula used in schools. The characterization of the research material is presented in Table 1.

Table 1. Characterization of the research groups: experimental and control groups of boys with mild intellectual disability and healthy boys aged 15 to 17 years

Healthy boys Boys with intellectual disability

Control group

experimental group

Control group

experimental group

Body Mass [kg] 60.7±13.29 58.7±7.73 62.2±12.8 61.3±12.52

Body Height [cm] 168.8±7.47 170.3±6.61 170.3±6.35 166.8±8.98

Age [years] 163.2±0.86 16.5±0.80 16.2±0.81 16.8±0.72

number of participants 25 25 25 25

93


The curriculum was developed according to the recommendations of the Polish Hippotherapy Society and Polish Equestrian Association and included balance exercises during both horse’s walk and horse’s trot and coordination exercises. Before and after completion of the study, both experimental and control groups were diagnosed by means of Accu SwayPlus force plate. The force plate platform was also used to determine alterations in the position of the centre of pressure (COP) with respect to the base of support (BOS) on the platform in the frontal and sagittal planes in the relaxed standing position with feet spread to the shoulder width and with eye control.

Reliability of the measurement equipment was maintained using the procedure of resetting before each measurement. The measurement of each parameter took ca. 30s. Each participant was informed about the details of the test.

A statistical analysis was performed for the selected parameters of Bio Soft software for balance analysis, which recorded the natural sway of the centre of gravity in the frontal and sagittal planes.

Comparison of the results includes:1. Statistical analysis based on the Statistica 8 software package. The de-

scriptive statistics of the documented data was used: arithmetic mean, standard deviation, median, minimum and maximum values: – COP-X Max (cm): maximal position of the centre of pressure (COP)

in the frontal plane X,– COP-X Min (cm): minimal position of the centre of pressure (COP)

in the frontal plane X,– COP-Y Max (cm): maximal position of the centre of pressure (COP)

in the sagittal plane Y,– COP- Y Min (cm)- minimal position of the centre of pressure (COP)

in the sagittal plane Y, measured before and after equestrian classes and its effects with evaluation of the statistical significance (statisti-cally significant effect at p<0.05),

2. Comparison of the level of the characteristic compared before and after the equestrian classes and the effects of horse riding by means of the scatter diagram,

3. Graphical representation of the distribution of a measure of ability be-fore and after horse riding in the form of histogram,

94


4. Determination of correlations between the values of sway in the frontal and sagittal plane for the parameters studied by means of Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient.The analysis of distribution of the variables was also conducted. This

analysis demonstrated the lack of normal distribution and homogeneity of variance. Therefore, in order to evaluate intergroup differences, we used the Mann-Whitney U-test, whereas in order to find significant intragroup changes, we employed Wilcoxon test for dependent samples, performed twice, before the classes and after 12 weeks. Comparative analysis car-ried out for the initial test between the control and experimental groups in the group of healthy children and children with intellectual disability revealed no statistically significant differences in the stabilographic pa-rameters between the group of healthy and disabled study participants (see Tab. 2).

Table 2. Values of stabilographic parameters (mean and standard deviation) in the first test for the experimental and control groups of healthy boys and boys with mild intellectual disability (*statistically significant differences Mann-Whitney U test p<0.05)

stabilo-graphic

parameter


Control group

experimental group

Control group

experimental group

CoP-X Max [cm.] 0.83± 0.54 0.72±0.49 1.27± 0.99* 1.35± 0.92*

CoP-X Min [cm.] -0.87 ±0.75 -0.98± 0.89 -1.24± 0.51* -1.17± 0.55*

CoP-Y Max [cm.] 4.64± 1.86 4.86± 1.93 5.32± 2.26* 5.20 ±2.32*

CoP-Y Min [cm.] -1.49 ± 0.59 -1.53± 0.56 -1.64± 0.55* -1.66± 0.51*

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Results

After completion of the 12-week equestrian classes, the participants from the control group were examined again and no changes with respect to the parameters studied were found (see Tab. 3).

Table 3. Values of stabilographic parameters (means and standard deviations) in the second test for the control group of healthy boys and boys with intellectual disability (Wilcoxon test)

stabilo-graphic

parameter


examination 1 examination 2 test 1 examination 2

CoP-X Max [cm.] 0.83± 0.54 0.83±0.49 1.27± 0.99 1.31± 0.95

CoP-X Min [cm.] -0.87 ±0.75 -0.88± 0.89 -1.24± 0.51 -1.23± 0.51

CoP-Y Max [cm.] 4.69± 1.86 4.75± 1.93 5.32± 2.26 5.30 ±2.31

CoP-Y Min [cm.] -1.49 ± 0.59 -1.51± 0.56 -1.64± 0.55 -1.66± 0.51

We carried out detailed analysis of the stabilographic parameters ob-tained during the second examination of the experimental groups after completion of the equestrian classes. The position of the centre of pressure (COP) in the frontal plane (COP-X Max) was found in both healthy boys and boys with intellectual disability. However, these results are statistical-ly significant, which is also reflected by the scatter diagram for COP-X Max (see Figs. 1, 2). Mean values of the parameter studied were lower in healthy boys, both before and after the experiment (0.73 cm and 0.72cm) compared to disabled boys (1.35 cm and 1.32 cm). However, the group of the disabled boys was characterized by greater maximal values of this parameter: 3.97 cm and 4.53 cm and minimum: 0.37 cm and 0.47 cm (Tab. 4).

96


s wit

h in

tell

ectu

al d

isab

ilit

y h

befo

re (E

xam

inat

ion

1) a

nd a

fter

(Exa

min

atio

n 2)

eq

uest

rian

cla

sses

(Man

n-W

hitn

ey U

tes

t)

Co

P-X

Max

Hea

lthy b

oys

Boys

with

inte

llect

ual d

isabi

lity

xM

es

min

max

xM

es

min

max

exa

min

atio

n 1

0.73

0.62

0.48

0.28

2.29

1.35

0.96

0.93

0.37

3.97

exa

min

atio

n 2

0.72

0.58

0.73

0.34

2.77

1.32

0.93

1.02

0.47

4.53

effe

cts

of cl

asse

s

p=0.

7918

-0.0

3-0

.05

1.18

-2.4

13.

65

p=0.

4236

-0.1

7-0

.03

0.56

-0.5

52.

18

97


Fig.1. Scatter diagram for COP-X Max values in the experimental group before and after equestrian classes in boys with mild intellectual disability

Fig. 2. Scatter diagram for COP-X Max values in the experimental group before and after equestrian classes in healthy boys

98


Percentage distributions of sway for the stabilogram curve in both groups point to an insignificant improvement in the ranges of sway for maximal positions of the centre of pressure (COP) in the frontal plane. However, they are statistically insignificant. The greatest improvement (by 12%) in the group of intellectually disabled children was observed for the sway range of 0.5 to 1.0cm (Fig. 3). In the group of healthy chil-dren, the most participants i.e. 60% before and 58% after the classes were those with values of maximum position of the centre of pressure (COP) in the frontal plane, from 0.4 to 0.8cm (see Fig. 4).

Fig. 3 Distribution of the COP- X Max values in the experimental group before and after equestrian classes in boys with mild intellectual disability

99


Fig. 4. Distribution of the COP- X Max values in the experimental group before and after equestrian classes in healthy boys

Similar tendencies were documented for the parameter of minimal po-sition of the centre of pressure (COP) in the frontal plane (COP -X Min). 12-week classes of horse-riding did not cause a significant improvement in this parameter in both groups studied, as indicated by the scatter dia-gram for the COP-X Min values (Fig. 5,6). Mean values of the parame-ter studied were lower in healthy boys, both before and after the experi-ment (-0.98 cm and -1.28 cm) compared to disabled boys (-1.17 cm and 1.11 cm). However, disabled children were characterized by greater min-imal values of this parameter before the classes: 0.32cm and after classes: (–0.43 cm) and maximal: -4.69 cm and -5.75 cm (Tab. 5).

100


Tabl

e 5.

Valu

es o

f m

inim

al p

osit

ion

of t

he c

entr

e of

pre

ssur

e (C

OP)

in t

he f

ront

al p

lane

(C

OP-

X M

in) i

n he

alth

y bo

ys a

nd b

oys w

ith

inte

llec

tual

dis

abil

ity

befo

re (E

xam

inat

ion

1)

and

afte

r (E

xam

inat

ion

2) e

ques

tria

n cl

asse

s

Co

P-X

Min

[cm

]H

ealth

y boy

sBo

ys w

ith in

telle

ctua

l disa

bilit

y

xM

es

min

max

xM

es

min

max

exa

min

atio

n 1

-0.9

8-0

.67

0.89

-0.2

9-2

.55

-1.1

7-0

.95

0.55

-0,3

2-4

.69

exa

min

atio

n 2

-1.2

8-0

.75

1.50

-0.3

9-2

.41

-1.1

1-0

.99

0.49

-0.4

3-5

.75

effe

cts

of cl

asse

s

p=0.

2437

-0.1

0-0

.16

0.76

-1.6

91.

69

p=0.

5009

-0.3

4-0

.06

1.44

-0.9

01.

30

101


Fig. 5 Scatter diagram for COP-X Min values in the experimental group before and after equestrian classes in boys with mild intellectual disability

Fig. 6 Scatter diagram for COP-X Min values in the experimental group before and after equestrian classes in healthy boys

102


Analysis of the percentage distributions of sway for the stabilogram curve in both groups points to a slight improvement in the sway range for minimal positions of the centre of pressure (COP) in the frontal plane, which are statistically insignificant. The highest improvement was found for the following ranges: -1.4- -1.2 cm by 17%, -1.2- -1.0 cm by 7%, -0.6 – 0.4 cm by 17% in boys with mild intellectual disability and in the range of -1.0- -0.5 cm by 20% (Figs. 7, 8).

Fig. 7 Distribution of the COP- X Min values in the experimental group before and after equestrian classes in boys with mild intellectual disability

Statistically significant changes were recorded for sway of position of the centre of pressure (COP) in the sagittal plane, which is present-ed in the scatter diagram for COP- Y Max value (Tab. 6,7). Mean val-ue of maximum position of the centre of pressure in the sagittal plane Y was improved after the equestrian classes, both in the group of intel-

103


lectually disabled boys: 5.22- 4.20 cm and healthy boys: 4.86‒3.57 cm. Lower minimal and maximal values in healthy boys (8.96- 8.32 cm and 0.65‒0.56 cm) than in boys with intellectual disability (10.94‒7.72 cm and 1.47- 1.02 cm) before and after equestrian classes point to the im-provement in the parameter (see Tab. 6). The results obtained are statis-tically significant, which is reflected by the scatter diagrams for COP-Y Max values (Fig. 9, 10).

Fig. 8 Distribution of the COP- X Min values in the experimental group before and after equestrian classes in healthy boys

104


Tabl

e 6.

Valu

es o

f m

axim

al p

osit

ion

of t

he c

entr

e of

pre

ssur

e (C

OP)

in t

he sa

gitt

al p

lane

(C

OP-

X M

ax) i

n he

alth

y bo

ys a

nd b

oys w

ith

inte

llec

tual

dis

abil

ity

befo

re (E

xam

inat

ion

1)

and

afte

r (E

xam

inat

ion

2) t

he e

ques

tria

n cl

asse

s

Co

P- Y

Max

[cm

]H

ealth

y boy

sBo

ys w

ith in

telle

ctua

l disa

bilit

y

xM

es

min

max

xM

es

min

max

exa

min

atio

n 1

4.86

5.44

1.92

0.65

8.96

5.22

4.71

2.32

1.47

10.9

4

exa

min

atio

n 2

3.55

2.94

2.35

0.56

8.32

4.20

3.97

1.77

1.02

7.72

effe

cts

of cl

asse

s

p=0.

0238

*-1

.00

-0.8

32.

42-8

.73

3.34

p=0.

0042

**-1

.31

-1.8

42.

24-5

.65

5.36

105


Fig. 9 Scatter diagram for COP-Y Max values in the experimental group before and after equestrian classes in boys with mild intellectual disability

Fig. 10 Scatter diagram for COP-Y Max values in the experimental group before and after equestrian classes in healthy boys

106


Percentage distributions of sway for the stabilogram curve in both groups point to a substantial improvement in the sway ranges for max-imal positions of the centre of pressure (COP) in the sagittal plane. In intellectually disabled boys, maximal values of COP-Y were not found in the range of 8 to 11cm. However, the percentage of people with minimal values in the range of from 2 to 7cm was increased, with the highest per-centage (21%) found for the range from 2 to 5 cm. In the group of healthy boys, the highest percentage (30%) was observed for the range of values of 1 to 2 cm (improvement by 26%) and the percentage of people with minimal values of this parameter in the range of from 1 to 3 cm was in-creased (Fig. 11, 12).

Fig. 11 Distribution of the COP- Y Max values in the experimental group before and after equestrian classes in boys with mild intellectual disability

107


Fig. 12 Distribution of the COP- Y Max values in the experimental group before and after equestrian classes in healthy boys

Similar tendencies were found for the minimum position of the cen-tre of pressure (COP) in the sagittal plane Y (COP-Y Min). The im-provement in the value of this parameter occurred in the experimental group of healthy children and it was statistically significant, as indicated by the scatter diagram for COP-Y Min values (Figs. 13, 14). This fact is indicated by mean values, both before and after the experiment: (-1.53 cm and -1,22 cm), and extreme values for the group of healthy children be-fore and after the experiment. Minimum: 0.83cm and 0.63cm and maxi-mum: – 3.21cm and -3.12cm (see Tab. 7).

108


Tabl

e 7.

Valu

es o

f m

inim

al p

osit

ion

of t

he c

entr

e of

pre

ssur

e (C

OP)

in t

he sa

gitt

al p

lane

(C

OP-

Y M

in) i

n he

alth

y bo

ys a

nd b

oys w

ith

inte

llec

tual

dis

abil

ity

befo

re (E

xam

inat

ion

1)

and

afte

r (E

xam

inat

ion

2) t

he e

ques

tria

n cl

asse

s

Co

P- Y

Min

[cm

]H

ealth

y boy

sBo

ys w

ith in

telle

ctua

l disa

bilit

y

xM

es

min

max

xM

es

min

max

exa

min

atio

n 1

-1.5

3-1

.37

0.56

-0.8

3-3

.21

-1.6

4-1

.55

0.51

-0.7

0-2

.94

exa

min

atio

n 2

-1.2

2-1

.01

0.63

-0.6

3-3

.12

-1.6

3-1

.53

0.67

-0.5

4-3

.47

effe

cts

of cl

asse

s

p=0.

5482

0.01

0.11

0.81

-2.3

11.

73

p=0.

0138

*0.

310.

250.

71-1

.67

1.90

109


Fig. 13. Scatter diagram for COP-Y Min values in the experimental group before and after equestrian classes in boys with mild intellectual disability

Fig. 14. Scatter diagram for COP-Y Min values in the experimental group before and after equestrian classes in healthy boys

110


The percentage distributions of sway for the stabilogram curve in both groups point to a substantial improvement in the sway ranges for maximal positions of the centre of pressure (COP) in the sagittal plane. The per-centage distributions in boys with intellectual disability point to variation of the values obtained. However, the most of the boys (29% and 43%) were characterized by the range of values from -2.0- -1.0 cm. In the group of healthy boys, the ranges of -1.5 to 0.5cm are observed in 40 to 46% of the participants (Figs. 15,16).

Fig. 15. Distribution of the COP- Y Min values in the experimental group before and after equestrian classes in boys with mild intellectual disability

Analysis of the relationships between the position of the centre of pres-sure (COP) in the frontal (X) and sagittal (Y) planes revealed a correlation between maximum position of the centre of pressure in the frontal plane (COP-X Max) and minimum and maximum position of the COP in the sagittal plane (COP -Y Min and COP -Y Max). Values of correlation coefficients were not high, reaching R (0.50‒0.41) in healthy boys and R (0.31‒0.35) in boys with mild intellectual disability (Tab. 8).

111


Fig. 16. Distribution of the COP- Y Min values in the experimental group before and after equestrian classes in healthy boys

Table 8. Correlation coefficients between stabilographic parameters in the sagittal and frontal planes in healthy boys and boys with mild intellectual disability

Healthy boys/boys with mild intellectual disability CoP Y –Max CoP Y –Min

CoP X-Max 0.50/0.35 0.41/0.30

CoP X- Min 0.25/0.21 0.23/0.20

(R<0.3- no correlation; 0.3≤R<0.5- poor correlation; 0.5≤R<0.7- average correlation)

Discussion

The balance control system in humans, which involves numerous struc-tures of the central nervous system, can be approached as a control sys-tem with three inputs used to determine spatial position of the centre of gravity. Spatial position of the COG is a controllable parameter, that is,

112


it represents the output signal for this control12. In the upright position, the projection of human centre of gravity remains in the specific restricted area of the feet support while maintaining the centre of gravity in this area does not require much muscular effort. The position of the centre of grav-ity in standing on both feet moves in the sagittal and frontal planes13.

The differences observed in body balance control in healthy people analysed in our study and those with mild intellectual disability might point to different function of the balance system. Boys are characterized by greater values of maximal and minimal position of the centre of pres-sure (COP) both in the frontal and sagittal planes compared to healthy peers. Furthermore, more substantial displacements in the sagittal plane on the base of support reflect the general principle connected with the strat-egies of work of the ankle and hip joints. While experiencing horse-rid-ing, humans attempt to find balance in motion and have opportunities of learning balance-related reactions. A horse rider without support with feet senses changes in position of balance of his or her body while attempt-ing to adjust to these changes. The swinging motion transferred on his or her body results from alternating occurrence of acceleration at the mo-ment of horse legs losing contact with the ground and being lifted up, and braking effect caused by placing the legs on the ground. These forces make the rider moving to the front and back. This helps learning how to adjust movements in the sagittal plane. After the classes, lower values of maximal and minimal positions of the centre of pressure (COP) in the sagittal plane were observed in healthy boys, while in the boys with intellectual disa-bility, only the minimal value was reduced, which might suggest an im-provement in balance reactions. Improper function of the nervous system, being the cause of intellectual disability, might represent an obstacle for performing regulatory functions compared to the group of healthy par-

12 M. Golema, Stabilność pozycji stojącej, Studia i Monografie AWF, Wrocław 1987, nr 17, p. 5–19; M. Golema, Biomechaniczne badania regulacji równowagi u człowieka, Studia i Monografie AWF, Wrocław 1988, nr 2, p. 48‒67; G. Juras, Koordynacyjne uwarunko-wania procesu uczenia się utrzymywania równowagi ciała, AWF, Katowice 2003, p. 23–35; J.W. Błaszczyk, L. Czerwosz, Stabilność posturalna w procesie starzenia, ”Gerontologia Polska” 2005, nr 13, p. 25–36.

13 G. Juras, Koordynacyjne uwarunkowania procesu uczenia się utrzymywania równowagi ciała, AWF, Katowice 2003, p. 23–35; T.P. Alloway, K.J. Temple, A comparison of work-ing memory skills and learning in children with developmental coordination disorder and moderate learning diff iculties, ”Applied Cognitive Psyhology” 2007, nr 21, p. 473‒487.

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ticipants. Furthermore, percentage distributions of the value of the above parameters in the sagittal plane point to greater contribution of smaller maximal and minimal values of the centre of gravity in both healthy chil-dren and those with intellectual disability, although the results are better in the group of healthy people.

In the case of maximal and minimal values of the position of the centre of pressure (COP) in the frontal plane, we did not find similar tendency. The maximal value was reduced in healthy boys. However, this result is not statistically significant. Percentage distribution of the COP-X Max values turned out to be favourable since the number of minimal and maximal val-ues for the position of the centre of pressure was increased. The smallest changes were found for minimal value of the centre of pressure in the fron-tal plane COP-X Min, pointing to the irregular direction of changes.

Examination of the correlations between parameters in the sagittal plane Y and frontal plane X pointed to the relationship between maximal position of the COP in the frontal plane and sagittal plane and maximal position of the COP in the frontal plane with higher correlation strength in favour of the healthy boys. It was found that the values of parameters of sway in the frontal and sagittal plane are correlated with each other14.

Human body that experiences horse riding improves balance reac-tions through re-establishment of new motor patterns, which is based on the balanced body posture. The classes oriented towards acquisition and establishment of balance reactions is connected with reception and pro-cessing of information concerning new motor sensations. During the class-es, participants were allowed to practice the balanced body posture for many times. Horse riding improves balance abilities both in healthy boys and boys with mild intellectual disability within the boundaries offered by the nervous system.

Conclusion

1. The values of the centre of pressure in the sagittal plane Y were reduced in both experimental groups, pointing to an improvement. Chang-

14 M. Golema, Biomechaniczne badania regulacji równowagi u człowieka, Studia i Mo-nografie AWF, Wrocław 1988, nr 2, p. 48‒67; M. Golema, Stabilność pozycji stojącej, Studia i Monografie AWF, Wrocław 1987, nr 17, p. 5–19; P. Giagazoglou, F. Arabatzi, K. Dipla, M. Liga, E. Kellis, Effect of a hippotherapy intervention program on static ba-lance and strength in adolescents with intellectual disabilities, ”Res Dev Disabil” 2012, nr 33, p. 2265‒2270.

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es in maximal values of this parameter were statistically significant in both groups, whereas minimal value was significant only in the group of healthy boys.

2. No statistically significant changes in maximal and minimal values of the centre of pressure were found for the frontal plane X.

3. A correlation was found between maximal and minimal position of the centre of pressure in the sagittal plane X and maximal position of the centre of pressure in the sagittal plane Y.

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A. Mazur-Rylska, T. Ambroży, D. Mucha, J. Omorczyk, D. Ambroży, W. Mikuľáková, S. Gulak, E. Puszczałowska-Lizis, L. Kendrová, D. Mucha, Distribution of Minimal and Maximal Values of the Location of the Centre of Pressure in the Frontal and Sagittal Planes in Healthy Boys and Boys with Mild Intellectual Disability Participating in 12-Week Eques-trian Classes, “Security Dimensions. International and National Studies”, 2017, no 21, p. 86-116, DOI 10.24356/SD/21/5.

Sociology of Security


no. 21; 2017 (118–129)DOI 10.24356/SD/21/6

caliPhaTe calls To arms. euroPean isis fighTers in The lighT of sociological analysis

Assist. Prof. Karolina Wojtasik, Ph.D.University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland

Prof. Marek S. Szczepański, Ph.D.University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland

ABSTRACT

The article concerns European volunteers travelling to Iraq and Syria to participate in armed jihad. It includes an analysis of propaganda materials prepared for potential ISIS fighters from Europe and the broadly understood West and the characterisation of the type of motives leading to the decision to travel to the territories occupied by the so-called Islamic State (the Caliphate). The theoretical system of reference was based on push-pull model combined with the cost-benefit theory which allowed to analyse this phenomenon in the context of the most popular theories of migration.

ARTICLE INFO


Key wordsmigration, terrorism, propaganda, ISIS, Islamic State

Introduction

This article regards the volunteers from the broadly understood West who participate in the fighting going on in Syria and Iraq under the banner of the Islamic State. Our theoretical system of reference is based on select-ed theories of international migration. While analysing the phenomenon of migration of Europeans to the territories occupied by ISIS, the push-

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Caliphate Calls to Arms. European ISIS Fighters…

pull model has been used in combination with the cost-benefit theory, to characterise potential costs of becoming an ISIS fighter (pull factors), the potential benefits of becoming an ISIS fighter (push factors), the po-tential costs of staying in a home country (push factors) and the potential benefits of staying in a home country (pull factors). Moreover, a detailed analysis has been performed on the propaganda and informational materi-als prepared for potential fighters. Also, the most frequent topical motives and argumentation used by recruiters were demonstrated.

The analysis includes various official materials issued by the so-called Islamic State, including both informational and journalistic publications related to the genesis and operation of the organisation and the Caliphate founded by it, as well as different publications prepared for potential vol-unteers. These include magazines, e-books, music (nasheed1) and various kinds of films, however, the area of analysis was limited to materials in English and Arabic. Other types of sources included publications from sources not related to ISIS, predominantly American and British think-tank reports, articles and analyses as well as publications of journalists who have visited the Middle East and have talked to ISIS mujahids2. This arti-cle focuses on volunteers and fighters, although the authors are aware that the Caliphate also attracts women from the broadly understood West3.

Volunteers from europe

In a relatively short time the so-called Islamic State4 has become a seri-ous political power, a threat to the Middle East and a global problem. It is a terrorist group which spreads panic, and expands its territories and sphere of influence. ISIS keeps looking for new fighters and has at its disposition 1 Nasheed – a melodic work of vocal music that is sung a cappella.2 Mujahid – a holy warrior, person engaged in jihad. Currently this term is used when

referring to religiously-inspired Muslim fighters who participate in guerilla fights or fight against governments which they do not accept.

3 cf. K. Wojtasik, Ucieczka od wolności. Jak tzw. Państwo Islamskie kusi ochotniczki spoza Lewantu, [in:] O kulturze strachu i przemyśle bezpieczeństwa, ed. P. Żuk, P. Żuk, Warsaw 2015, p. 169‒182.

4 Hereinafter referred to as the Islamic State, the Caliphate, or the IS. Acronym ISIS/ISIL (Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (Sham)/Levant) is also commonly used as it is the official name of the organisation between 2013‒2014. There is also an acronym DAESH created from the Arabic name of the organisation. However, it is forbidden within the territories occupied by the so-called Islamic State because the word sounds similar to an Arabic verb meaning “to trample down” or “to tread into the ground”.

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Karolina Wojtasik, Marek S. Szczepański

substantial amounts of money as well as advanced technological and prop-aganda capabilities. It is estimated that since the proclamation of the Cali-phate on the 29th of June, 2014 several thousands of Europeans have joined the ranks of the fighters, mostly young Muslims. These numbers not only include the children of the emigrants from the Middle East but also people who have converted to Islam. Their decision to abandon relative stabilisa-tion in Europe and travel to Iraq and Syria is a complex process which is a challenge for sociologists. Out of 70,000 mujahids fighting for the so-called Islamic State, foreign volunteers constitute 40%5 and the majority of them are from the Middle East6. Currently, it is estimated that around 30,000 fighters from more than 100 countries7 have joined the ranks of ISIS mujahids. Although volunteers have also joined the al-Nusra Front, 80% of the newcomers fight under the aegis of the Caliphate.

Since the 80’s of the XX century (the Soviet–Afghan War), throughout the 90’s (the Balkans, Chechnya) and at the beginning of the XXI century (Iraq, Somalia, Afghanistan) militants identifying themselves with various forms of armed jihad8 fight and die in conflicts and wars. Their number is estimated between 10,000 and 30,000. In the case of the Syrian Civil War, on one hand a phenomenon known for more than 30 years can be observed – participation of ideologically motivated fighters from various countries, and on the other no previous Middle Eastern conflict has in-volved so many volunteers from the broadly understood West9.

A report10 from 2015 on foreign terrorist fighters prepared for the Unit-ed Nations Security Council reveals that more than 22,00011 foreign fight-5 A. P. Schmid, J. Tinnes, Foreign (Terrorist) Fighters with IS: A European Perspective,

ICCT Policy Brief, 2015, p. 7‒8.6 The largest numbers from Saudi Arabia, Tunisia, Libya and Jemen. 7 A. P. Schmid, Foreign (Terrorist) Fighter Estimates: Conceptual and Data Issues, icct

Policy Brief, 2015, p. 1.8 Jihad is a term referring to all efforts made towards spreading and strengthening Islam:

mainly through internal struggle and spiritual development of the follower or convert-ing infidels. Radical terrorist groups Defie jihad as an armed struggle against infidels. In the media this term is frequently but not accurately translated as „holy war”.

9 T. Hegghammer, The Rise of Muslim Foreign Fighters: Islam and Globalization of Jihad, “International Security”, v. 35, no. 3, p. 53.

10 http://www.un.org/en/sc/ctc/docs/2015/N1508457_EN.pdf, accessed 20.09.2015.11 Depending on the source, the number of foreign fighters varies between 22 thousand

and more than 30 thousand. However, it is to be noted that hundreds of fighters die in battles and they are constantly replaced by new volunteers.

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ers are involved in armed conflicts in Syria and Iraq, fighting for either the so-called Islamic State or the al-Nusra Front associated with al-Qae-da. For comparison, there are 6,500 foreign terrorists fighting currently in Afghanistan. Between June 2014 and March 2015 the number of volun-teer terrorists has increased by 71%, a significant increase was also noted in the number of volunteers from UN member states. The report states that, although a general description of volunteer fighters can be prepared, it is impossible to construct an overall profile. A volunteer terrorist who comes to Syria is usually a male between the ages of 15 and 35. However, IS ranks are also composed of much older veterans of the Soviet–Afghan War as well as the First and Second Chechen Wars. Syria and Iraq are the destinations of both radicalised Islamic fundamentalists (recruited in Islamic centres in Great Britain or Belgium), and alienated and bored with their present lives young people who are searching for their own path. In the cases of volunteers from France and Austria it has been noted that a considerable number of them infringed the law in the past and received a sentence for “common” offences. In the case of fighters from Morocco and Saudi Arabia such relationships were not observed.

Just as there is no statistical volunteer fighter, according to the quoted report, there is no single pattern of fighter recruitment. Networks of peo-ple responsible for “new personnel” exist in religious centres (UK), prisons (France) or within criminal organisations (in the case of Chechen minor-ity living in Austria). Personal contact, family and friendship ties within the same ethnic/religious group as well as access to information from peo-ple” on location” are very important. The Internet significantly facilitates establishing and maintaining these kinds of contacts, which allows easier and safer communication. Apart from that, it is a part of the social life of many of the young fighters.

Although the terrorists from the so-called Islamic State despise mo-dernity, progress and everything that they associate with the moral rot of the West, they use the latest technological developments, utilise the In-ternet and social media extremely efficiently and, furthermore, are aware that a stable country requires specialists to function in today’s world. Al-though they criticise “Western” education, they need engineers, doctors and professionals from the financial sector educated in the West. The Ca-liphate’s authorities invite not only fighters who will expand the territo-ry seized by ISIS, but also educated specialists who will ensure the qua-si-state’s everyday operation. While referring to migration, the authors

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of materials in English consistently use the Arabic word hijrah which means both migration and the journey of the prophet Muhammad from Mecca to Medina in 622. In the first issue of the official press organ of IS, Dabiq, there appeared a rallying call encouraging all Muslims to trav-el (migrate) to the newly-created Caliphate12. On the following pages, the author of the call addresses particularly “ […] scholars, fuqaha’ (ex-perts in Islamic jurisprudence), and callers, especially the judges, as well as people with military, administrative, and service expertise, and medical doctors and engineers of all different specializations and fields”13. They are called to arrive and participate in building the power of a state which is in great need of highly educated personnel. The third issue featured another article in a similar vein convincing that the Caliphate is the right place for every Muslim14. The articles in the subsequent issues of the magazine depict the advantages of living in the Caliphate. Peace, safety, a regular supply of power and water, good infrastructure, efficient public institu-tions and all of the benefits related to life in a welfare state are only some of the positive sides of living in the Caliphate. Thus the volunteers are encouraged to come with their families because nowhere else would it be possible to raise children in a God-fearing and wealthy society.

Propaganda aimed at future fighters of the Caliphate

The large-scale propaganda, directed first of all at the volunteers from the West, depicts fighting for the Islamic State as a mission, adventure and trial of manhood15. ISIS skillfully exerts its influence on the minds and hearts of young radicals, fuels their hatred and provides them with av-enues for action. It speaks their language, adjusts the level of the messages to the intellectual capabilities of the receivers and chooses its arguments very carefully. An extremely important role in delivering such content is played out via social networking sites and the other possibilities offered by the Internet. Movies produced by the media wing of ISIS (usually Al – Hayat Media Center and Al – Furqan Instytute, but, on the regional level, also smaller agencies document the operations in each province of the Ca-12 “Dabiq” no. 1/2014, p. 10.13 Ibidem, p. 11.14 „Dabiq” no. 3/2014, p. 26.15 cf. K. Wojtasik, Dlaczego młodzi Europejczycy walczą dla tzw. Państwa Islamskiego?

Analiza materiałów propagandowych i of icjalnych mediów ISIS, [in:] Implementacja zas-ad religijnych w sferze politycznej, R. Michalak (ed), Zielona Góra 2016, p. 143‒158.

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liphate) spread across the Web very quickly due to the thousands of pro-files of ISIS sympathisers and fighters. Materials which are reposted, shared and commented on are very popular, contribute to radicalisation and are practically impossible to remove from the Internet.

It should be noted that, although social media plays a significant role in the process of radicalisation and recruitment of fighters, real bonds and so-cial interactions are equally important. It is also noteworthy that departure of one of the family members usually leads to departure of another – broth-er, cousin, sister, or bringing a wife and children to Iraq/Syria. Brothers or cousins who fights in Syria become the best and the most trusted source of information because of contacts and the exchange of information be-tween fighters and their families living in the West, which usually takes place. Volunteers frequently leave their homes in small groups consisting of several people who already know each other, who are bound by friend-ship, share memories and who are connected with emotional ties. ISIS even encourages to depart with a friend as it will make the adjustment to difficult conditions easier. Recruitment takes place in mosques, cultural centres, and in the lectures of charismatic clerics. Recruiters operate in numerous Euro-pean cities, frequently making friends with potential volunteers, by building trust, and becoming confidants and advisers. The materials published on the Internet are important, however, the role of personal contact and exist-ing ties between fighters and potential volunteers cannot be disregarded16.

Hijrah in the light of migration theory

Every decision to migrate to the Caliphate is a complex process deter-mined by various factors. Thus not only should the individual be inves-tigated, but also the community in the country of residence, family and community ties as well as the conditions offered by the country (in this case a quasi-country) chosen by the potential fighter.

Three approaches can be defined within the theory explaining the phe-nomenon of migration. Firstly, the micro approach which analyses the sys-tem of values of a given individual, needs, goals and human capital. Sec-ondly, the macro approach which concentrates on the economic, political and demographic situations. Thirdly, the meso approach stresses an addi-tional dimension in the form of collective links, i.e., social and symbolic ties

16 cf. J. A. Carter, Shiraz Maher, Peter R. Neumann, #Greenbirds: Measuring Importance and Influence in Syrian Foreign Fighter Networks, ICSR 2014.

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between an individual and a community17. A popular model of the macro type which explains the root causes of migration is the push and pull theo-ry. According to this theory and in accordance with the fact that decisions to leave one’s home country is usually a complex process, there are sever-al reasons – factors which push a person from the current place of resi-dence and several factors pulling a person towards a given destination18. This approach has received substantial criticism, e.g. A. Giddens notes19 that complex mechanisms and multilateral migration processes are overly simplified. Thus migrations should be treated as a result of interactions between phenomena occurring at the macro and micro levels. The macro level includes factors which operate universally in a given sphere (migra-tion laws and regulations, global economic changes), whereas the micro level is related to resources, level of knowledge and an immigrants’ defi-nition of the situation. While analysing the phenomenon of migration to the territories of the so-called Islamic State, a mixed theory was used which combines the push-pull model with the cost-benefit theory to in-vestigate the phenomenon both at the micro and macro level20. Two sets of potential costs and two sets of potential benefits which are related to migration into the Caliphate are presented below. The A set includes real or potential costs of joining the ISIS fighters – these are arguments which discourage the departure from the current country of residence and which inhibit the decision-making process. The B set consists of factors pulling a volunteer to the Caliphate – potential benefits resulting from becoming an ISIS fighter. The C set presents push factors – potential costs which the candidate would have to incur by staying in the country of residence. The D set includes potential benefits related to staying in the home country which are the factors inhibiting the decision to migrate to the Caliphate. If the influence of the factors placed in the B and C sets are greater than of those listed in the A and D sets, it is probable that a de-cision to migrate would be made. The above factors are presented in below. However, considering that every decision is influenced by a different set of factors, the most popular factors were listed.

17 Th. Faist, The Volume and Dynamics of International Migration and Transnational Social Spaces, Clarendon Press, Oxford 2000, p. 7 after: J. Balicki, P. Stalker, Polityka imigra-cyjna i azylowa, Warszawa 2006, p. 29.

18 Ibidem, p. 35‒36.19 A. Giddens, Sociology, Warszawa 2010, p. 283.20 J. Balicki, P. Stalker, op. cit, p. 37‒39.

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Costs and benefits of becoming an IsIs fighter21:

A. POTENTIAL COSTS OF BECOMING AN ISIS FIGHTER (PULL FACTORS):– costs and difficulties of travel to Syria/Iraq,– the lack of possibility to return to the current country of residence,– danger of being intercepted at a border/airport and arrested on charges

of terrorism,– surveillance of potential and real fighters by the appropriate forces,– separation from one’s family and friends, abandonment of the current

life,– cultural differences, language barrier,– being alone among fighters from different cultures,– constantly risking one’s life, risk of disablement or death,– life in a brutal, totalitarian quasi-state,– difficulties related to living on the frontline, Spartan conditions, brutal-

ity of drill instructors,– absolute obedience and death penalty for desertion/treason,– official ban on alcohol consumption, smoking tobacco, drug use,– being forced to kill innocent people,– being forced to kill Muslims.

B. POTENTIAL BENEFITS OF BECOMING AN ISIS FIGHTER (PUSH FACTORS):– religious duty,– a chance to become a martyr (shahid) and enter Paradise after death,– benefits related to entering Paradise after death (access to happiness, al-

cohol and houris),– armed combat with infidels, killing infidels,– revenge for imperial politics of the Crusaders22, colonialism, invasion on

Iraq, injustices committed against Muslims,21 Based on the table “Potential costs and benefits of migration” in K. Slany, Między

przymusem a wyborem. Kontynentalne i zamorskie emigracje z krajów Europy Środ-kowo-Wschodniej (1939‒1989), Kraków 1995, p. 45‒46, after: J. Balicki, P. Stalker, op. cit., p. 37‒39.

22 Countries of the broadly understood West. In the official media of the IS, notions “countries of the West” and “the Crusaders” are used interchangeably. Cf. „Dabiq” no. 2/2014, „Dabiq” no. 6/2014. The same terminology is used in the Inspire magazine issued by AQAP (Al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula)

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– promise of a true men’s adventure,– vision of brotherhood and friendship between the fighters, the so-called

brotherhood in arms,– a chance to give vent to sadistic tendencies, killing and committing acts

condemned by the Western societies23,– material advantages (pay, support, spoils of war),– a chance to escape from the punishment for crimes committed in

the home country,– right to bring one’s family and being able to provide for them,– a promise of safety and social care for the fighter’s family,– fighter’s family receives material compensation in case of his death,– a chance to start a family and raise children in a Muslim society,– a promise of living in a country created for Muslims by Muslims.

C. POTENTIAL COSTS OF STAYING IN THE HOME COUN-TRY (PUSH FACTORS):– an inability to fully participate in jihad24,– no hopes for armed combat with infidels,– legislation and stricter control measures perceived as persecution of re-

ligious/racial grounds,– unemployment, lack of prospects, living in deprived districts of the West-

ern cities,– problems related to entering adulthood, entering the labour market,

problems at school,– lack of prospects,– anomie25,– search for own identity,– the so-called moral rot of the West,– search for consistent set of ethical and moral principles26.

23 Not applicable to all fighters.24 Understood by the terrorists from ISIS as armed struggle against everyone who does

not share their views. 25 Anomie – an inconsistency within the axionormative system, sense of uncertainty and

pointlessness in the society as the result of sudden social changes and breakdown of social order.

26 Despite their promises, ISIS does not actually provide any ethical or moral principles.

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D. POTENTIAL BENEFITS OF STAYING IN THE HOME COUNTRY (PULL FACTORS):– a relatively safe and stable life in the Western society,– presence of one’s family and friends,– social/medical care offered by the European countries,– access to education, labour market, public services,– citizenship of a Western country and rights resulting from it,– civil liberties and democratic system,– a chance to carry out/prepare a terrorist attack in the home country fa-

cilitated by own knowledge of the area, conditions, etc.,– a chance to establish terrorist cells,– a chance to carry out an attack as a so-called lone wolf.

Conclusions

The Caliphate’s fighters are constantly engaged in fighting and defending the territories previously seized by the organisation. They die on the front-lines and new recruits are needed. ISIS (also al-Qaeda and AQAP) de-ploys more and more fighters from outside of the Middle East. They are usually young Muslims from immigrant families or people who converted to Islam. They abandon their previous lives and travel to Syria and Iraq attracted by the idea of global jihad, a promise of combat with infidels and brotherhood of arms. They come mainly from France, Germany, Great Britain, Belgium, Austria, the Netherlands, Scandinavian countries but also from Russia and Caucasian republics. Both British teenagers and vet-erans of the First and the Second Chechen Wars travel to Syria and Iraq. Their motives are radically different, the same is true for their experience, skills and knowledge about the world. There are different ways of recruit-ment or radicalisation and different factors which influence the decision to participate in armed jihad, thus the authors focused mainly on young fighters from countries of Western Europe.

The candidates for jihadists frequently do not know Arabic language, their familiarity with the Middle East, culture models or customs is lim-ited and their knowledge of Islam is rudimentary. Therefore, it is easier to convince them to come and fight and then persuade them to carry out brutality in the name of religion. They are more likely to believe in idyllic pictures presenting happy fighters, victorious campaigns, brother-

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hood, friendship and prosperity. Weiss and Hassan27 emphasise that for-eign fighters do not know much about the countries they arrive to and, most importantly, do not understand the reasons behind the conflict they want to participate in. Patrick Cockburn states that ISIS commanders are distrustful towards Europeans and frequently send them on dangerous missions. Problems with adjusting to harsh conditions and new culture as well as the language barrier makes the volunteers decide on suicide attacks which appear to be the only way to escape the hell they have found them-selves in. It should be noted that Cockburn defines fighters from Europe as a cannon fodder of the ISIS28.

It is also noteworthy that with each military defeat of ISIS, the num-ber of volunteers from Europe dwindles. The Caliphate loses more and more cities and areas of control, its fighters die on the frontlines and offers of the terrorist organisation (right to bring your family to join you, material benefits, pay, social support) lose their attractiveness. In 2016, the number of fighters leaving Europe decreased significantly. However, it is alarming that there are thousands of radicalised, potential volunteers left in France, England, Germany and Belgium, who are inspired by propaganda, ready to kill infidels and looking for a chance to wage armed jihad. They can attack as the so-called lone wolves, establish sleeper cells or organise acts of terror. Terrorist organisations provide them with instructions, muja-hid manuals and overtly encourage them to kill infidels in the countries of Western Europe and the USA.

References:

1. Balicki J., Stalker P., Polityka imigracyjna i azylowa, Wydawnictwo Uni-wersytetu Kardynała Stefana Wyszyńskiego, Warszawa 2006.

2. Carter J. A., Maher S., Neumann P. R., #Greenbirds: Measuring Impor-tance and Influence in Syrian Foreign Fighter Networks, ICSR 2014.

3. Cockburn P., Why join Islamic State, “London Review of Books”, Vol. 37, No 13.

4. Dabiq Magazine, numery 1‒10 (2014‒2015), ed. Al – Hayat Media Centre, b. m.w.

5. Giddens A., Socjologia, PWN, Warszawa 2010.

27 M. Weiss, H. Hassan, ISIS. Wewnątrz armii terroru, Warszawa 2015, p. 263.28 P. Cockburn, Why join Islamic State, “London Review of Books”, v. 37, no. 13, p. 7‒8 http://

www.lrb.co.uk/v37/n13/patrick-cockburn/why-join-islamic-state, accessed 4.05.2016.

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6. Hegghammer T., The Rise of Muslim Foreign Fighters: Islam and Globali-zation of Jihad, “International Security”, vol. 35, no. 3.

7. Hijra to the Islamie State (2015).8. How to survive in the West. A Mujahid Guide (2015).9. Schmid A. P., Tinnes J., Foreign (Terrorist) Fighters with IS: A European

Perspective, ICCT Policy Brief, 2015.10. Schmid A. P., Foreign (Terrorist) Fighter Estimates: Conceptual and

Data Issues, ICCT Policy Brief, 2015.11. Weiss M., Hassan H., ISIS. Wewnątrz armii terroru, Wydawnictwo

Burda, Warszawa 2015.12. Wojtasik K., Ucieczka od wolności. Jak tzw. Państwo Islamskie kusi ochot-

niczki spoza Lewantu, [in:] O kulturze strachu i przemyśle bezpieczeńst-wa, P. Żuk, P. Żuk (ed.), Oficyna Naukowa, Warszawa 2015.

13. Wojtasik K., Dlaczego młodzi Europejczycy walczą dla tzw. Państwa Islamskiego? Analiza materiałów propagandowych i of icjalnych mediów ISIS, [in:] Implementacja zasad religijnych w sferze politycznej, R. Micha-lak (ed.), Zielona| Góra 2016.

Authors

marek S. Szczepański – sociologist, Professor; Head of the Department of Sociology of Development at the Institute of Sociology (University of Silesia in Katowice). Main research interests: sociology of social change, sociology of the city and the region, sociology of education. Author and co-author of 350 research papers published among others in the USA, UK, France, Canada, the Czech Republic and Slovakia.

karolina wojtaSik – a graduate of sociology and political science, PhD, Assistant Professor at the Institute of Sociology (University of Silesia in Katowice). The author of articles on terrorism and international conflicts. Main research interests: analysis of the official media of contemporary terrorist organizations.


K. Wojtasik, M. S. Szczepański, Caliphate Calls to Arms. European ISIS Fighters in the Light of Sociological Analysis, “Security Dimensions. Inter-national and National Studies”, 2017, no 21, p. 118-129, DOI 10.24356/SD/21/6.

internal Security


no. 21; 2017 (132–141)DOI 10.24356/SD/21/7

risk anD ProTecTion of fire fighTing volunTary fire brigaDes in slovakia

Ing. Milan DermekŽilinská Univerzita, Slovakia


ABSTRACT

This paper deals with the intervention activities of voluntary fire brigades in municipalities in cooperation with professional fire brigades. It emphasizes the need of the voluntary fire activities their awareness towards dangerous situations. There are many risks sometimes underestimated during the fire attack or other fire brigade activities. Respecting the basic rules of work prevents the injuries and fatalities. The paper focus on most often dangerous situation and bad habits of the volunteers which are very risky in the sense of health safety. The paper states the types of interventions defined and the requirements for the necessary equipment. List of selected risks for intervening fire fighters and their causes is written. The last part describes firefighter injuries caused by their fault in sense of ignoring basic Health & Safety rules.

ARTICLE INFO


Key wordsVoluntary fire brigades, rescue activities, injury risk, health & safety

Introduction

Communities need to fulfill the tasks related to the implementation of a fire and rescue services to the local volunteer fire department. The voluntary fire brigades are included in the system nationwide deployment of man-

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Risk and Protection of Fire Fighting Voluntary Fire Brigades in Slovakia

power and resources to the appropriate category, as required by the mu-nicipality. Conditions for inclusion in the relevant category is its technical and material support, the number of firefighters and the time of escape.

Voluntary fire brigades engage communities in particular by:1

– Fires in countryside,– elimination of consequences of floods, – removing the consequences of windstorms,– support services to long-term professional interventions,– simple technical interventions.

Following types of problems are connected to the effectivity of voluntary fire intervention, especially lack of knowledge and skills and equipment:2

– No vocational training is sufficient 40 hour courses for members of fire brigades,

– minimal or no experience of intervention activities,– reduced requirements for personal protective equipment, and sufficient

clothing (one-tier fighting clothes), safety shoes, work gloves, helmet,– Inadequate equipment for interventions in difficult conditions (e.g.

breathing apparatus),– lack of communication tools (walkie-talkies).

Figure 1 Fire actions of fire brigades in cooperation with fire volunteer brigades (data3)

1 M. Dermek, The use of voluntary f ire brigades municipalities in intervention activities. Crises situations solution in specif ic environment, University of Žilina, Žilina 2016, p. 55.

2 M. Orinčák, Modelovanie zásahovej činnosti záchranných brigád Hasičského a záchranného zboru s využitím metód sieťovej analýzy, „Krízový manažment = Crisis management“, 5/1 (2006), p. 98.

3 Ministry of Interior Slovak Republic. Statistics intervention activities 2016, http://minv.sk/statistika, p. 36.

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Milan Dermek, Jana Müllerová

Voluntary municipal fire brigades fighting activities carried out mainly in the municipality on the basis of the classification system nationwide deployment of forces and resources can be requested to implement an act outside the territory of the municipality. This is especially the interven-tions which need to deploy a large number of firefighters. In Figure 1, the number of joint operation of voluntary and professional fire brigades in 2014 and 2015. The year after year, the number of joint actions in-creased by 34%. From the above graph it shows that the greatest synergy is required in fires. Voluntary fire brigades communities are destined to in-terventions which need to deploy a large number of forces for destruction events, and is not required special skill and experience4.

1. selected Hazards During Intervention operations

Danger of physical exhaustion

There is at extreme single power or at the long-term load without sufficient recharge of man energy within the body, particularly with lack of physical fitness. The significant increase in the level of load for intervention af-fects the use of protective clothing for firefighters, mental strain and stress (anxiety, fear), temperature and humid environment are the main factors of physical exhaustion.

Risk of falling

– Loss of balance – changing the surface properties of rescue routes and assembly area extinguishing agent or the effects of weather, the effect of the blast wave or reactive power streamlines.

– Lack of fixing – is mainly an underestimation of the risk of falling, neg-ligence or errors of fusing and ensuring inadequate or incorrect self-fix-ing, which can cause a fall in seizures of tearing down the breaker or disabling seizures fall.

– Loss of nerve-muscle coordination – because of fear or exhaustion.– Overturning objects – for dismantling and removing structures hitting

other people or objects entrained work with objects during strong winds.

4 Ministry of Interior, Presidium of Fire and Rescue Services. Tactical implementation methodology of intervention – Methodological sheets no. 122‒124, p. 123.

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– Weather conditions – a strong, especially gusty wind or wind direction changes, the creation of frost on the surface structures on fire equipment and material means for freezing.

Risk of loss of orientation

Disorientation – in poor visibility (e.g. in smoky) in unknown terrain or in very rugged terrain or indoors, unmarked obstacles, depressions, low feasible or narrow design for intervention routes.

Risk of burns

– Annealed flames that threaten firefighters In the process smoky area near the Gaza burning, especially when opening premises in which a fire took place in the form of e.g. incomplete combustion.

– Radiant heat (infrared rays) emitted from the combustion zone; its in-tensity is proportional to the burn, type and calorific value combustible substance and distance from the combustion zone; similar nature may be laser burns or ionizing radiation.

– Touch or with hot hot hot object or substance; burns by touching can also occur with electric shocks.

– Inhalation of hot gases, thus defeating the mucous membranes of the air-ways.

scalding

When firefighters spray jet streams and fog creates large quantities of wa-ter vapor, which is very hot and is under pressure, which can cause the hot gases to penetrate all layers of protective clothing, including underwear and hood. The transformation of water into steam changing thermal con-ditions in the room so that it can lead to changes in the flow of hot gases from the ceiling to the floor of the room where they are firefighters and often disabled.

Danger of hypothermia

In the natural environment in winter, at about 0 °C., by treatment with strong wind and frost. In high humidity, such as rain and drizzle, and at lower temperatures. In the original and to work on the water when it comes to long-term deployment at lower outdoor temperatures.

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Danger of overheating

Depending on the type of used clothing, the size and duration of the energy load and ambient temperature. Overheating risk, particularly at high am-bient temperatures such as those caused by radiant heat or direct sunlight.

Risk of electric shock

Impaired electrical wiring, alternative sources of electricity, step voltage wires from power lines flow from the ground, static electricity, the residual charge induced voltage.

Danger of intoxication

For all fires inside the building and in the open outdoors, where the tox-ic substances formed as products of incomplete combustion, combustion gases and as a result of thermal decomposition of substances. In case of technical intervention with the presence of toxic substances.

2. Causes of Accidents

The various causes of accidents, can be summed up in the overall categories5:1. The fault own fault.2. The fault unpredictable risk.3. The fault another person, animal.

Most attention should be given to accidents that were culpable own fault (negligence), carelessness or failure to comply with health and safety at work.

Accidents culpable fault of their own

Injuries culpable fault of their own can be further divided into the following chapters: The inability to use the necessary personal protective equipment (hereinafter ‚PPE’). This is mainly to the control of incidents where indi-vidual firefighters are not provided with proper PPE6 for this type of ne-gotiation of an emergency. Often it is equipped with appropriate PPE in-

5 M. Orinčák, Povodňová záchranná služba v Slovenskej republike, „Krízový manažment = Crisis management“, 5/2 (2006), p.80.

6 M. Orinčák, Význam a postavenie Záchranných brigád HaZZ v integrovanom záchran-nom systéme SR, [in:] Požární ochrana 2009, sborník přednášek XVIII. ročníku mez-inárodní konference, SPBI, Ostrava 2009, p. 555.

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adequate, outdated or worn part with the possibility of imperfect protective function. Despite these shortcomings are DHZO need for larger ranges of emergencies where you need to deploy a large number of fire brigades.

Bad use of PPe

The cause of the evil use of PPE is imperfect acquaintance with the instruc-tions for use incompatibility used various parts of PPE or reckless under-estimation of the potential hazards associated with intervention activities.

Figure 2 Fireman has left the cocoon of the neck therefore not protected. Firefighters at right has deployed emergency clothing (Photo by author)

The most common causes of accidents wrong use of personal protec-tion equipment (PPE) can be classified wrong size emergency clothing or gloves, unstretched premium loops through the thumb, which prevents

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ejection of emergency clothing, bad tension neck collar or insufficient se-curing mask breathing apparatus.

Failure to use PPe

The most serious violation of the principles of safety and health at work is not using the appropriate PPE. Due to non-use of PPE injuries to fire-fighters and endanger the whole unit during intervention activities. Sud-denly, from the current intervention has become an event during which firefighters must save his own member use.

Figure 3 left in use Firefighter response coat or gloves. Firefighters do not use the right-contained breathing apparatus for fire fighting. (Photo by author)

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The most frequently observed cases where the underestimate of using PPE:– Catching and controlling wasps, bees and hornets (no use of beekeeping

helmets, overalls),– firefighting: non-use of helmets, gloves Failing intervention, non-use or

misuse of the intervention coats (especially during the summer months), non-use autonomous breathing apparatus7,

– Technical interventions: failing to wear gloves, non-use of helmets, fail-ing to wear a shield.

3. Injuries Culpably Unpredictable Risk

Unforeseen risk is the risk that during the intervention, emergency unpre-dictable, especially one random interplay of processes, non-adjacent. Fire-fighters who became an unforeseen accident fault risk, does not infringe any procedures or methodologies basic principles of health and safety at work. Examples fault accidents unpredictable risks8:– uneven ground,– drop in depth,– a fall from a height,– move around the snow-covered, frozen surface,– injuries from falling objects,– bad, – recovering persons from a crashed car.

Accidents culpable other people, animals

It is mainly accidents caused by animals or people stressed out during repairs. Impossible behavior of persons or predict the game, especially in game, which is very sensitive to changes in the external environment con-ditions (shock, flames, smoke, noise, etc.)9. Accidents caused by persons who are especially when recovering from a car accident. Great risk caused

7 Decree 611/2006 Coll. the Fire Brigades.8 L. Bendáková, Injuries f iref ighters during emergency operations, vSB – tu ostrava, fac-

ulty of Safety Engineering, 2015, p. 75.9 M. Orinčák, Využitie záchranných brigád HAZZ pri mimoriadnych udalostiach v zah-

raničí, [in:] Riešenie krízových situácií v špecifickom prostredí: 15. medzinárodná ve-decká konferencia: Žilina, 2.-3. jún 2010. 2. Časť, Žilinská univerzita v Žiline v EDIS, Žilina 2010. p. 557; Act. 124/2006 Coll. safety and health at work, p. 48..

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by infestation of firefighters rescuing people is disorientation in space, Stress and Panic conduct.

Conclusion

Voluntary fire brigades municipalities have their importance, particular-ly for interventions, which need to deploy large numbers of forces, such as forest fires, floods or storms. When intervention activities are volun-teer firefighters exposed to a number of threats. Adequate knowledge and skills of firefighters can prevent the occurrence of accidents firefighters.10 Injuries culpable fault of their own may not have been the situation as firefighters will use the necessary PPE and are sufficiently educated about the potential dangers and cause of their formation at the event. Injuries have been culpable unforeseen risks cannot be assumed, but appropriate training and exercises can be prevented. It is also important after the oc-currence of such an event to analyze it and take measures in the future it eliminated or removed completely. Recent accidents are caused by oth-ers and birds that are foreseeable, but can never be accurately determined their behavior. It is therefore necessary to take extra care and foresight.

References

1. Act. 124/2006 Coll. safety and health at work.2. Bendáková L., Injuries f iref ighters during emergency operations, vSB –

TU Ostrava, Faculty of Safety Engineering.3. Decree 611/2006 Coll. the Fire Brigades4. Dermek M., Fire vehicles in Slovakia, Georg, Žilina 2011. 5. Dermek M., The use of voluntary f ire brigades municipalities in interven-

tion activities. Crises situations solution in specif ic environment, university of Žilina, Žilina 2016.

6. Ministry of Interior Slovak Republic, Statistics intervention activities 2016.

7. orinčák M., Modelovanie zásahovej činnosti záchranných brigád Hasičského a záchranného zboru s využitím metód sieťovej analýzy, „Krízový manaž-ment = Crisis management“, 5/1 (2006).

8. Orinčák M., Povodňová záchranná služba v Slovenskej republike, „Krízový manažment = Crisis management“, 5/2 (2006).

10 M. Dermek, Fire vehicles in Slovakia, Georg, Žilina 2011, p. 112.

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9. Orinčák M., Využitie záchranných brigád HAZZ pri mimoriadnych uda-lostiach v zahraničí, [in:] Riešenie krízových situácií v špecifickom pros-tredí: 15. medzinárodná vedecká konferencia: Žilina, 2.-3. jún 2010. 2. Časť, Žilinská univerzita v Žiline v EDIS, Žilina 2010.

10. Orinčák M., Význam a postavenie Záchranných brigád HaZZ v inte-grovanom záchrannom systéme SR, [in:] Požární ochrana 2009, sborník přednášek XVIII. ročníku mezinárodní konference: Ostrava, VŠB – TU 9.-10. září 2009, Sdružení požárního a bezpečnostního inženýrst-ví, Ostrava 2009.

11. Tactical implementation methodology of intervention – Methodolog-ical sheets no. 120‒136, Ministry of Interior, Presidium of Fire and Rescue Services.


M. Dermek, J. Müllerová, Risk and Protection of Fire Fighting Voluntary Fire Brigades in Slovakia, “Security Dimensions. International and Na-tional Studies”, 2017, no 21, p. 132-141, DOI 10.24356/SD/21/7.


no. 21; 2017 (142–158)DOI 10.24356/SD/21/8

subculTure of sTaDium hooligans – PaThology or crime?

Andrzej Czop, Ph.D.University of Public and Individual Security APEIRON in Cracow, Poland

Agnieszka Juszczak, M.A.University of Public and Individual Security APEIRON in Cracow, Poland

ABSTRACT

Aggressive behaviour of hooligans is not a new phenomenon, but has its roots in ancient times. From that era it developed and evolved, with particular dynamics at the turn of the 1950s/60s of the last century. In Poland this phenomenon and the violence appeared later, in the 1970s. Authors also presented classification of the fans by presenting the attributes and characteristics of particular groups. These often brutal and violent behavior have also been analised in this article –authors have presented the most spectacular tragedies caused by aggression of hooligans. It was showed that modern groups of football hooligans in Poland often have criminal nature, and are an important part of organised (often international) crime, connected with smuggling and drug trafficking.

ARTICLE INFO


Key wordsScarfers, hooligans structure, collective violation of public security, organized crime

One of the serious threats that appear in public space, especially large cities, are ultras, due to scarves worn on neck in colours of the club, also known as “scarfers” [pol. “szalikowcy”]. They are perpetrators of serious collective distortion of order and security. To restore order the Police is

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Subculture of Stadium Hooligans – Pathology or Crime?

forced to use regular subunits, which often use coercive means such as wa-ter1, horses2, non-penetrating bullets3 or incapacitating chemicals4. Such arsenal is necessary to control riots, which participants are armed with stones, batons, and sometimes cleavers or machetes. Riots occur not only in stands during the match, but in the streets when the feuding groups are reaching the stadium or leaving it. Increasingly mass organized fights [pol. “ustawki”] are arranged – their participants agree on a regular battle that is fought in public places, often using dangerous tools. It is not surprising that this kind of excesses ends with not only the destruction of stadium infrastructure, whether the destruction of public transport vehicles and cars parked in the streets but also people may suffer serious injury, and sometimes even die.

Authors considered that such an important, from the point of view of public security, negative phenomenon which is the activity of hooligans, requires providing research, to formulate some solutions both in sphere of prevention and its effective eradication. For this purpose they have formulated the main research problem: whether it is possible to improve efficiency of actions of the Police in combating hooligans’ crime. To find the answer to this question authors have also identified specific questions to be resolved in this article. The rest is going to be analised in the next publication, which will present results of provided research. Detailed re-search problems that authors decided to settle in this article are:– Whether the aggressive behaviour of hooligans is a new phenomenon

or evolves?– Does ultras are a homogeneous group?– Does football hooligans’ behaviour have criminal nature?

It turns out that roots of such behavior date back to ancient times. In 1300 BC Egyptian fans as a result of the so-called stadium “war” led to the outbreak of civil war, which resulted in the overthrow of Pharaoh Fikas. Similar way of rooting had also place in the Roman Empire during the Colosseum chariot racing. About the fact of the first murder on sports arena we find out from the ancient Roman chronicles.

1 Art. 12 par. 1 pt. 8 of Ustawa z dnia 24 maja 2013 r. o środkach przymusu bezpośred-niego i broni palnej, Dz.U. 2013 poz. 628.

2 Ibidem, art. 12 par. 1 pt. 10.3 Ibidem, art. 12 par. 1 pt. 11.4 Ibidem, art. 12 par. 1 pt. 12.

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Andrzej Czop, Agnieszka Juszczak

A consequence of such negative behavior was the introduction of a num-ber of security procedures, some of which are applied until present times. An example of such preventive action was introduced in 450 BC in the city of Delphi – prohibition of bringing in alcohol into the stadium5.

“Scarfers” is a specific subculture associated with sport, and the name of such groups is derived from the scarf with the name and logo of be-loved team. Their members are the biggest problem among fans of foot-ball teams. They behave in a very brutal way, using obscene language and commit acts of vandalism. These groups are characterized by the most aggressive attitudes and provocative style of being.

The origins of the modern stadium hooliganism have been reported already at the turn of 50s and 60s of the last century in the UK. There fights between fans of opposing teams occurred during football matches. Aggressive fans, wearing club colours, firstly began to cheer their team only in the United Kingdom, and later in the whole Europe.

On the unofficial website of the ARKA Gdynia “Ultra Hools” you read that hoolingans’ behavior in the stadium lasts more than one hundred years, and that at the end of the 19th century at the head of the hoolingans’ gang stood Irish magnate Edward Hooligan and his life full of excesses gave rise today commonly term “hooligans”6.

A guiding spirit role for stadium hooliganism played in the UK mainly the Chelsea fans – “head hunters” and fans of the Manchester United – “Red Army”. Ultras of Chelsea for a very long time were the most danger-ous and unpredictable fans in the UK, causing deaths, coming on stadiums with dangerous items such as knives or axes.

In Poland “szalikowcy” appeared at stadiums later, in the mid-70s of the last century7. At that time tv started to broadcast English league matches, and these broadcasts showed Polish fans a whole new world, new forms of rooting and supporters wearing the club’s colours, with fan attributes i.e. scarvers and flags of favourite club.

Another important factor for creation of ultras subculture in Poland was that fans began to travel for matches with their teams, thus creating integrated group with informal leaders.

5 Comp. P. Piotrowski, Szalikowcy. O zachowaniach dewiacyjnych kibiców sportowych, Wy-dawnictwo Adam Marszałek, Toruń 2000, p. 15.

6 J. Dudała, Fani-chuligani. Recz o polskich kibolach studium socjologiczne, Wyd. Akademic-kie „Żak”, Warszawa 2004, p. 27.

7 J. Dudała, Kibic to potęga. Część I, „Sport”, 7.03.2001.

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For the moment, supporters of some clubs are ongoing a dispute, who in Poland was the first to organise such forms of team support. Łukasz Staniek, in an article on a website shows his own observations8.

In his opinion “scarfers” of the ŁKS were the avant-garde. A group of students dressed in scarves, armed with flags, meet every match in the same place, singing songs and chanting lyrics on ŁKS (…). To be the precursors of “scarfers” movement candidate, in addition to fans of the ŁKS, aspire at least three club teams: Polonia Bytom, Legia Warszawa and Lechia Gdańsk. The fact is that at the beginning of the 70s fans of the ŁKS were the largest, most colourful and the most active group. Immediately after them were supporters of Lech Poznań, Legia Warszawa, Lechia Gdańsk, Wisła Kraków and Polonia Bytom. Soon they were joined by supporters of: ARKA Gdynia, Pogoń Szczecin, Silesia Wroclaw and gKS tychy9.

Of course, as the most hardcore were the groups whose roots reached the be-ginning of the 1970s. However, there were no fully consolidated groups, that made being a fans an essence of their life. Everywhere there was a scheme that fans after leaving the army went in privacy. Others got married and also disappeard from stadiums. At the beginning of the 1980s, this stereotype slowly began to disappear. Until then, as the biggest football hooligans were seen those who could showed themselfs on the matches away in places, where, as the locals sang, “death was waiting for them”. Then no one could count on that militiaman will take care about carnality of visiting. He had only to rely on his own strength. Who was strong at the end of the decade of the prop-aganda success? Surely Silesia. To show twice in Szczecin, also in Poznan, Warsaw before 1976, when there were a consent with Legia, require a consid-erable courage. We are talking about the departure of groups of fans, and not trips of coaches handled by industrial companies. Because in those days such matches also happen. It was possible to show for some clubs: Pogoń Szczecin, Polonia Bytom, Wisła Kraków, Lechia, Zawisza Bydgoszcz, Lechia and Arka of the Three-City, Zagłębie Sosnowiec, Ruch and Górnik. Surely ŁKS, Legia. The forerunners of stadium fanaticism10.

8 http://www.kibice.net/kibice.9 P. Sielecki, P. Sobiech, Szalikowcy- podstawy informacyjne, Zakład Taktyki i Techniki

Interwencji, Szkoła w Katowicach 2006, p. 10.10 J. Dudała, Fani- chuligani Recz o polskich kibolach studium socjologiczne, Wyd. Akade-

mickie „Żak”, Warszawa 2004, p. 33.

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The value of competition of sports players is often determined by the num-ber of viewers who are interested in it. The players, accepting their “service” role stress that they play for the audience, and even that playing sports without viewers does not make sense11.

A group of spectators watching sporting events at the stadium is, of course, strongly varied, mainly they are differed by intensity of emotions.

You must extract the group of so-called “real audience”. This group primarily consists of people in mature age, stabilised financial situation and good social position. This group comes on the stadium mainly to par-ticipate in a good sports show, and their behaviour is consistent with the “fair play”.

Another group are the fans. This group, in contrast to the “real audi-ence”, emotionally solidarises with their team. As a rule, these are young people, identifying with their club. They like to watch match directly at the stadium, and the result they treat in terms of personal success or failure.

The players of the opposing team, their fans, and often referees, are seen as an obstacle that must be removed that “ours” won. Defeat is a highly frustrating event and often leads to violent acts of retaliation. The goal is a humiliation of rival – “a stain on the honor”, which is a lost on the pitch, can be taken away even on the stands or in after-match clashes12.

The last group are so-called hools or hooligans. Hools are aggressive, come at the stadium mainly to satisfy the need for strong sensations, ex-perience the adventure and make a riot at the occasion of the match. This group is often completely not interested in what happens on the pitch because they really not not have an emotional bond with the team.

“Scarfers” subculture is certainly the most numerous group of stadium subcultures. They are mainly young people aged 15 to 25 years, mostly bald or with very short haircut, dressed in sports clothes of reputable com-panies. On necks they are wearing scarves, flags in their hands, and hats in the colours of own club.

The “scarfers” group is characterized by the crime associated with sports. They are the people with high aggression in both words and deeds. Their behaviour is destructive and is a result of sense of impunity, anonymity and the “distraction” of responsibility. These young people often commit acts,

11 P. Piotrowski, Szalikowcy-o zachowaniach dewiacyjnych kibiców sportowych, wyd. Adam Marszałek, Toruń 2000, p. 9.

12 Ibidem, p. 10.

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which they would never had committed alone. Often during commitment of these acts they are under influence of alcohol or other drugs.

For “scarfers” the most important is the club membership and the abil-ity to show in a group, which, according to them, means something. An important factor is also the desire to be the most important in the group. The primary attribute of fan is of course scarf, and its loss is the largest humiliation of a member of such informal group. The amount of acquired scarves of the opposing team is meticulously recorded in the fan-zones because it shows hooliganic strength of the group. Later such “gained” scarves are hung on the fences of stadiums, next to one another as a trophy. Sometimes they are put on fire.

The strength of the club is also measured by number of designs of scarves. The most numerous groups of supporters have even more than 100 designs of this club attribute13. As a rule, scarves are made on orders of fan-clubs or militias. It was only at the beginning of the 90s of the last century when have appeared scarves produced by specialized companies, from computer-made subtitles or crests.

The meeting point of this subculture is a stadium and a place called “mill” or “boiler”, mostly “vis a vis” tribune of honour. “The mill” has its own name, usually from the determination of the sector in which it is lo-cated. And so the fans Wisła Kraków “mill” call – “X Sector”, and Legia Warsaw fans – “Razor”.

The size of the “mill” is very important, because it shows the level of fans. When assessing the “mill” counts its abundance, quality, flags, and age fans. While the team that does not have it, in general, is not taken into account in the creation of the so-called Polish fan society maps.

Each “mill” has also its commander and bandleaders leading the ap-plause. “Mills” often change their place and sometimes at the stadium there are from two to three of them.

Among “scarfers” there is always the leader – the commander, which manifests the courage, bravery and loyalty to other hooligans. He is also known among football hooligans from other teams and does not take a di-rect part in fights. His responsibilities include organization and liaising with leaders or representatives of other groups of football hooligans. As a rule, it is he who decides with whom his group has an alliance and who

13 Authors: comm. P. Sielecki, comm. P. Sobiech, Szalikowcy- podstawy informacyjne, Zakład Taktyki i Techniki Interwencji, Szkoła w Katowicach 2006, p. 18.

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is most hated. It also happens that the leader leads cheering and intonates song sung or chanted slogans.

“Scarfers” in “mill” keep cheering, singing songs, chant slogans to re-lieve atmosphere, support players or offend fans of the opposing team. They sing club songs during public transport rides on the way to the sta-dium. Each group of supporters of particular football team has its own repertoire and its anthem.Supporters of Wisła Kraków for years are singing:

Jak długo na Wawelu Zygmunta bije dzwonTak długo nasza WisłaZwyciężać będzie wciążZwycięży Gwiazda BiałaNasza wiślacka braćZasługa to niemałaTych, co umieją grać14.

In turn, supporters of Legia Warszawa intone:Mistrzem Polski jest LegiaLegia najlepsza jest Legia to jest potęgaLegia CWKS15.Club anthem is always sung before the beginning of each match, and

during the fans get up and keep spread scarves over heads or “sector flag” [pol. “sektorówka”]. “Sektorówka” is a huge flag sometimes covering sev-eral sectors, passed hand to hand by fans. Until recently, the largest sector flag belonged to ŁKS Łódź.

When the result is unsatisfactory for the hooligans, they initiate fights, trying to stop the match by throwing different pitches or burning flares on the pitch. Often they also destroy stadium equipment, high chairs, side-walks, fences and throw them in rivals, or in a competitive football players.

At this point it is worth mentioning about phenomenon known as “kosa” [eng. scythe], which involves mutual combating of antagonised groups of supporters. These are, first of all, fights taking place before the game, during the match and after its ending. It is also a verbal aggres-

14 Website http://www.wisla.koti.com.pl/.15 P. Sielecki, P. Sobiech, Szalikowcy- podstawy informacyjne, Zakład Taktyki i Techniki

Interwencji, Szkoła w Katowicach 2006, p. 20.

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sion of cries and songs insulting fans of the opposing team. In the frame-work of the “kosa” can also be counted, for example, ambushes on the bus, or train, with fans of another team. They are aimed at acquiring rivals’ fans attributes and later their destruction (usually by burning) during the match.

Fans also have their code of honour, which make up the rules that force specified behaviour, clearly specifying what can and what cannot a mem-ber of the group do.

Here are the records of the informal but widely recognised fan’s code of honour:1. Fan does not cooperate with the Police, do not seek for their protection

against other fans, in conflict fan – the Police always supports the for-mer (even if it would be a fan of the most hated group). This principle is commonly obeyed.– It is forbidden to blow the whistle to the Police on even most antago-

nistic opponents. “Scarfer” even heavily beaten, when asked by the Po-lice to identify the perpetrator, should remain silent.

– If some scarves, flags, which previously have been taken away by the Police officers, as their hands are disgraceful, can no longer be hoisted at the stadiums. This rule is not strictly obeyed.

– When the Police, during intervention uses force against “scrafers” even from the most hated club, the duty is to support them. In these situations they sing: “Zawsze i wszędzie Policja jebana będzie” [“Al-ways and everywhere the Police will be fucked]”.

– “Scrafer” has his honour and does not need Police protection. “Scrafers” looking for Police protection are exposed to the greatest contempt. As more valuable is even seen an escape from the field of battle, than this type of action.

– Do not taking care of checking theirs’ identity papers by the Police. Lastly such operations of the officers, as a rule, include recording of the images.

2. The song “If you lose, or not, I still love you” [“Czy przegrywasz, czy też nie, ja i tak kocham Cię”] is the most important section of the code of fan: to be on good and bad with the club, regardless of the attitude of players. The true fan is identified with the name of the club, its tradi-tion, colours, coat of arms, and not with the players, sponsors or activists. They often change. But there is no tolerance for sold and set matches

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or lazy players. They may lose, but they have to fight until the end. This rule is obeyed.

3. A fight between fans – hooligans should be carried out on the bare fists, and only in specific cases, with the agreement of both parties, by us-ing the so-called “items”. The battle should be carried out in a seclud-ed location to do not to fight others form “outside” of the group. This rule absolutely is not obeyed. Hooligans are fighting using all available and dangerous objects. Any prior agreements and contracts are bro-ken, and the teams that violate these rules are not generally condemned by the hooligans. After all, only the main objective counts, which is to win and to humiliate the opponent. Defeated no one listens to. Dis-honourable victory is valued higher than honoured defeat.

4. Hostile hooligans – you cannot take mobile phones, jackets, shoes and other things not related to being a fan – the fans are not thieves. The rule is not obeyed, now everything is stolen: money, watches, jack-ets, cell phones, cameras. Some teams even boast how much money they had “made”. Such an attitude also does not meet with condemnation of the environment.

5. When a hostile fan will give a scarf or a flag and do not want to fight, he should be let go, and when he is alone against a larger group, you can at most offer “a solo fight”. You cannot ride roughshod over defeated op-ponent. The rule is completely disobeyed. Several attackers beat a lone-ly opponent often with dangerous items, so as to make him the greatest harm. Often very young fans – children – are beaten up, causing a feeling of “pride” of the fact that some oppononts had to be taken to hospital.

6. On the national team matches a truce should be respected by fans – all we are cheering one and the same team. This rule is not obeyed.

7. Respect own “consent” and “settings”. Consent cannot be denied in any sit-uation. Lastly in this field there are some ambiguities. Particularly in large groups are subgroups having their own preferences and personal contacts16.Albert Jawłowski from the Youth Research Centre, Institute of Ap-

plied Social Sciences of the University of Warsaw presented a different typology of fans, constructed on the basis of slang expressions in this social group. It shall be as follows17:

16 P. Sielecki, P. Sobiech, Szalikowcy- podstawy informacyjne, Zakład Taktyki i Techniki Interwencji, Szkoła w Katowicach 2006, p. 35‒37.

17 A. Jawłowski, Zabawa na śmierć i życie, „Gazeta Wyborcza”, 7.04.2003.

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– Ordinary fans, otherwise known as “picnic participants” or buzzards. This is a group of fans who come to the stadium to watch the match, often with children, they react emotionally, but their expression ends at this moment. They support the team when it is successful but as soon as it is defeated, they distract. They treat match as entertainment and a way to get away from daily duties. Specifying them as “ picnic participants “ comes from the fact that they are the fans, who only occasionally, with family members, go with the team for the away match.

– Another group is ultras or fans, who are preparing the celebration of game, fire flares, flags, develop banners, they throw streamers. They take part in the show and take care of fiesta and show at the stadium. The behaviour of ultras are often a threat to the other participants in the match. Ultras do not attack fans of the opposing team but if they are taunted and attacked they are taking part in a brawl.

– Animals – is a group of the most aggressive supporters, are the least in-terested in what happens on the pitch, and the show is only a pretext for them to participate in the “blowout” or street riots. Animals often do not even know what teams played and what was the final score of the match. According to this group of fans, match at the stadium is a sufficient op-portunity for “blowout” and therefore do not go on away matches.

– Zadymiarz [“blowout” participant] – what differ them from the previ-ous group is that they go on away matches, and remember who played and what was the score. Therefore, “zadymiarz” is a little more conscious than animals.

– Scarfer – is a real fan and a lover of the sport. He is watching retrans-missions of matches on television, and is involved in fights only af-ter being provoked. Scarfer has big respect for club colours, which he demonstrates in appearance and fan attributes such as scarf, flag, t-shirt or sweatshirt.

– Fan just like scarfer has a scarf, a flag and a very high knowledge of the sport, from the television and press. Occasionally he goes on away matches, not far from their place of residence, and at most incognito. While at matches, in the area of his residence, trying to always be pres-ent. Fan rather avoids fighting.

– Fanatic – does not take to match any accessories, and with his team can run over the whole country, and even Europe. Fanatic condemns the “hooligans” and “scarfers”.

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– Hooligans [pol. Pseudokibice] is the most dangerous group.They include skinheads who treat match as an opportunity to fight

with other hooligans and the Police. Many famous Polish clubs have this kind of militias, for example Wisła Kraków has “White Star Army”, and Cracovia “Cops Hunter”. Hooligans is a group that has a lot of aggressive behaviour and uses to fight dangerous items: machetes, brass knuckles, baseball bats or sticks.

They also often use: firecrackers, smoke candles, serpentine, trumpets or fire sirens. The latter are often now being replaced by orchestras, in which “play” only hooligans.

Often they break the law by making a number of thefts, robberies, van-dalism in the means of public transport at the time of travel for the match or return to the place of residence. Also they commit acts such as throwing people from trains and attacking people who, according to them, in some way shared the beliefs of the opposing team.

Hooligans can also, during the intervention of the Police subunits, quickly join forces with rivals of the opposing team to jointly confront officers. They unify together with existing rivals by shouting, language and style, because they believe that the Police are their biggest enemy. Hence, if the Police are trying to neutralize aggressive fans, the opposing team fans sympathize with them and come to their aid. By hools every person in the stadium wearing uniform, is hated. For the attack on the “uniformed”, insulting them or throwing in them dangerous items, hools gains addi-tional respect in their group.

Hooligans travel in small groups, often by their private cars and using cell phones they inform the other members of the planned attack, or so called “entrance” on housing estate of the opposing team. Hools very often carry out attacks also on routes leading to the stadium.

Hooligans live from match to match, and family life is for them on the second plan. The most important are matches of the team, regardless of results and its position in the table.

Their ideology is shortened in the words: a true fan always supports the team in bad and good, with promotion and degradation, in local and away matches, despite the hills and holes and no matter the cost18.

They were and are perpetrators of the most serious, often tragic con-sequences of mass disruption of security and public order. The most spec-

18 M. Coileman, Sfoulowany futbol, Warszawa 2000, p. 126.

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tacular event of security disruption on the sporting event was a meeting at the Heysel Stadium in Brussels. Before the final match of the Europe-an Cup there was a clash between fans of Juventus and Liverpool19. This was made possible by the mistake of the organiser, who placed supporters of the opposing teams in the sectors that were next to each other.

Another mistake of the organiser were the gates left insecure, resulting in an excessive concentration of viewers in the sectors. Supporters of op-posing teams were separated from each other only by 3-meters fence. Al-ready before the meeting one could feel the atmosphere of a great compe-tition. Fans had a verbal clash even before the referee began meeting. For 45 minutes before the first whistle, English fans began throwing pieces of concrete at the fans of Juventus. When the Italian fans began to with-draw, Liverpool fans armed with metal rods forced their way through the fence and brutally attacked supporters of the opposing team. The Ital-ians found themselves trapped, began to flee towards the three-meter concrete edge, trampling each other. Pressing crowd caused the collapse of part of the stands, which squashed Italian fans. 39 people were killed, including 10-years old child, 425 people were injured, including 12 heavy.

Another tragedy, associated not so much with aggression but rather with bad security, took place at the match between Spartak Moscow and Dutch HFC Haarlem20. In winter, in frosty Russian evening on the Lenin stadium pitch 1/8 final of the UEFA Cup was played. Bad weather has made that at the stadium were less than 15 000 fans. Fans of both teams were placed on one of the eastern stand. The other stands were not even cleared of snow. To the stand led only one narrow and icy patch. At the end of the match fans began to leave the stadium. When Spartak scored at the end of the match, some fans wanting to see the joy of players decided to go back to their seats. Dutch fans, after losing the meeting, wanted to leave the stadium as soon as possible, while Russian fans wanted to celebrate with their players and promotion to the next round. The pas-sage got very crowded, fans began to push against each other and pushing to the walls of tunnel. As resumes one of the best Russian tennis players Andrei Chesnokov, there were no escape out of the tunnel. Fans tipped on each other like dominoes, were trampled to death. Russian media report that killed 67 fans. Unofficially, however, it is said to be up to 340 victims.19 See R. Cohn, J. Russell, Heysel Stadium disaster, 2012. 20 See R. Edelman, Spartak Moscow: A History of the People’s Team in the Workers’ State,

Nowy York 2012.

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Tragic consequences have also match in 1992 between Bastia and Olympique Marsylie. At the stadium that could accommodate 8500 fans, stand collapsed. As recounted by the French media in the stadium were two times more fans than was provided for capacity. 18 people were killed, 2,357 were injured21.

In Poland there were no security risks due to the poor state of the object or overpopulation. The biggest threat to the Polish stadiums were clashes of hooligans. One of the biggest got in Wrocław in 2003 during a match between Śląsk Wrocław and ARKA Gdynia. The first skirmish of fans began even before the match. A mass fight broke out when supporters of the Arka moved to match the Grabiszyńska Street. About 100 fans of Arka were then attacked by Śląsk hooligans. According to Police infor-mation, hooligans of both teams agreed there to fight “an organised fight”. Fights moved to nearby housing estates. Police officers who intervened were thrown stones. As recounts one of the witnesses, every few metres one could see a lying unconscious man. After some time the Police took control of the situation. At the Perec square layed in a row 100 hooligans wearing handcuffs. As a result of those events, one person died and several others were severely injured. Police detained 212 scarfers22.

In Warsaw in 2006 a match between Legia and Wisła was played. Legia won, securing the Polish championship. Fans of Warsaw decided to celebrate success of the team by demolishing the capital. At the Castle Square hooligans had tried to invade the liquor store. During the Police intervention officers were thrown bricks. As a result of clashes the Police detained more than 230 people23.

Unfortunately the dynamics of these pathological behaviour is increas-ing, and forces the entire security system to joint action, which is not only to intervene but also emergency reconnaissance and prophylactic. The Po-lice, to effectively prevent hooligans’ aggression, organises at voivodship level specialized cells to gain information about planned excesses and con-duct reconnaissance among football hooligans. This is particularly impor-tant due to the fact that, in addition to organizing the riots, these groups also lead criminal activities, such as distribution of drugs or their smug-

21 https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catastrophe_de_Furiani (accessed: 30.11.2016).22 http://kibole.wroclaw.pl/relacja2.html (accessed: 30.11.2016).23 http://www.polskieradio.pl/43/265/Artykul/370367,Najwieksze-zadymy-polskich-

pseudokibicow (accessed: 30.11.2016).

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gling from other countries. Often this criminal activity has the nature of transnational organised crime. This means that it meets the criteria laid down by the United Nations on 12 December, 2000 in the Convention against transnational organised crime (the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime), which was signed in Palermo by one hundred and twenty-three states that are its signatories24.

In art. 2 par. 2 the Convention25 precise international nature of the crime, recognizing that such character they have, when they have been made in the area of more than one state or were committed in one state, but an important part of the preparation, planning or directing took place in another state. For any, it is also a crime committed in one country, but in connection with organised crime group operating in more than one state. Finally, the international character also has a crime committed in one country if its important effects have occurred in the country. Accord-ing to the cited Convention organised criminal group is a group that has created the structure, and so was not random, it works for a while and it works in consultation, with the aim of committing a serious crime, which shall be prosecuted on the basis of the Convention. The purpose of such criminal activity is to achieve financial benefit or other benefits. There is no doubt that “scarfers” in large part correspond to the scope of the speci-fied in regulations adopted by the United Nations. An example of such ac-tivities carried out by hooligans was an attempt of smuggling from Spain to Polish 65 pounds of marijuana valued at close to 2 million zł. Policemen from the CBŚP arrested five people that were “hooligans” one of Krakow’s clubs. Policemen have prepared an ambush at the transfer point. Detained were in age from 28 to 40 years at the head of the group; in addition to marijuana they had hashish, two cars, and seventy thousands zł. All detained were accused by the prosecution of being members of organ-ized criminal group and smuggling large quantities of drugs. According to the speaker of the CBŚP comm. Agnieszka Hamelusz26 these drugs were to be distributed among Krakow’s hooligans. So “scarfers” were in this case in the double negative role, as drugs smugglers and traffickers 24 See S. Redo, Uzbekistan i narody zjednoczone w walce z międzynarodową przestępczością

zorganizowaną, Warszawa 2001, p. 468.25 General Assembly resolution 55/25 of 15 November 2000.26 http://wiadomosci.dziennik.pl/wydarzenia/artykuly/529719,kibole-z-krakowa-

chcieli-przemycic-65-kg-marihuany-za-2-mln-zl-piec-osob-zatrzymanych.html (ac-cessed: 22.11.2016).

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and their consumers. So it is how contemporary picture of the environ-ment looks like. Funds derived from drug crime are spent mostly on legal and medical support as well as to pay for trips, or the provision of assis-tance to the families of arrested hooligans.

In most cases, hooligans, who broke the law, are not captured and brought to the court. This is due to the fact that among the hooligans is the so-called “conspiracy of silence”. The buyer of drug not also do not informs about it to avoid criminal liability. This causes these acts have the highest “black rate” of crimes. The mass drugs selling that are willing to reach the largest audience, mostly young people, requires dealers who also recruit from the youth. It is the first contact with the criminal group, most often motivated by the desire to obtain drugs for their own use.

Provided research allowed the authors to gain answers to detailed prob-lems, which were formulated at the beginning of this publication. The au-thors pointed out that aggressive behaviour of hooligans is not a new phenomenon, but has its roots in ancient times. From that era it devel-oped and evolved, with particular dynamics at the turn of the 1950s/60s of the last century. In Poland this phenomenon and the violence appeared later, in the 1970s. Then on Polish stadiums come young people dressed in the colours of their clubs and fighting with supporters of other foot-ball clubs. A way of manifesting their devotion to the team, and an arse-nal of often illegal means to combat the antagonistic groups is constantly evolving, which was described in details by the authors.

Authors have also given classification of the fans by presenting the at-tributes and characteristics of particular groups. The same they showed that the environment of fans is not homogeneous, and belonging to a par-ticular group implies the characteristic behaviour of its members.

These often brutal and violence behaviour have also been analised in this article – the authors have presented the most spectacular tragedies caused by aggression of hooligans.

What is especially important, authors showed that modern groups of football hooligans in Poland often have criminal nature, and are an im-portant part of organised crime. The authors showed also that this crime has international character, and especially is connected with smuggling and drug trafficking.

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References

1. Cohn R., Russell J., Heysel Stadium disaster, 2012. 2. Coileman M., Sfoulowany futbol, Warszawa 2000.3. Dudała J., Fani- chuligani Recz o polskich kibolach studium socjologiczne,

Wyd. Akademickie „Żak”, Warszawa 2004.4. Dudała J., Kibic to potęga. Część I, „Sport”, 7.03.2001.5. Edelman R., Spartak Moscow: A History of the People’s Team in the Work-

ers’ State, Nowy York 2012.6. Jawłowski A., Zabawa na śmierć i życie, „Gazeta Wyborcza”, 7.04.2003.7. Piotrowski P., Szalikowcy. O zachowaniach dewiacyjnych kibiców sporto-

wych, Toruń 2000. 8. Redo S., Uzbekistan i narody zjednoczone w walce z międzynarodową

przestępczością zorganizowaną, Warszawa 2001.9. Russell G. W., Aggression in the Sports World A Social Psychological Per-

spective, Oxford University 2008.10. Sielecki P., Sobiech P., Szalikowcy- podstawy informacyjne, Zakład

Taktyki i Techniki Interwencji, Szkoła w Katowicach 2006.Legal acts11. Ustawa z dnia 24 maja 2013 r. o środkach przymusu bezpośredniego

i broni palnej, Dz.U. 2013 poz. 628. 12. United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime

General Assembly resolution 55/25 of 15 November 2000.Internet sources13. http://wiadomosci.dziennik.pl/wydarzenia/artykuly/529719,kibole-

z-krakowa-chcieli-przemycic-65-kg-marihuany-za-2-mln-zl-piec-osob-zatrzymanych.html

14. http://www.wisla.koti.com.pl/15. http://www.kibice.net/kibice16. https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catastrophe_de_Furiani17. http://kibole.wroclaw.pl/relacja2.html 18. http://www.polskieradio.pl/43/265/Artykul/370367,Najwieksze-

zadymy-polskich-pseudokibicow

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Authors

agnieSzka juSzczak – graduated the Security Sciences and Socio-Le-gal Faculty, degree course: internal security, at University of Public and Individual Security APEIRON in Cracow. In October 2016 got a mas-ter’s degree. She is an officer of the Voivodship Command of the Police in Krakow with almost 20 years of experience. Professionally engaged in infiltration of the environment of football hooligans. She has a very exten-sive knowledge and practical experience in the area of crime committed by this subculture.

andrzej czoP graduated Faculty of Law ad Adminisration, Jagiellonian University, Cracow. Previously he served in the Police, i. a. as Command-er-in-Chief of the Police in Krakow and Head of the Prevention Depart-ment in of the police in Krakow. Currently he also holds the position of Vice-President of the Polish Employers’ Association “Protection”, Branch of Malopolska. He is a lecturer at University of Public and Individual Se-curity APEIRON in Krakow. The main purpose of its research activities is to seek practical solutions to enhance the level of security for both people and businesses. He gained a master degree (1 dan) in All Style Karate.


A. Czop, A. Juszczak, Subculture of Stadium Hooligans – Pathology or Crime?, “Security Dimensions. International and National Studies”, 2017, no 21, p. 142-158, DOI 10.24356/SD/21/8.


no. 21; 2017 (159–183)DOI 10.24356/SD/21/9

swine fever ePicenTre eliminaTion

Ing. Michal Orinčák, Ph.D.Žilinská Univerzita, Slovakia

ABSTRACT

The study paper deals with actual problem of biological hazard elimination in setting of Fire rescue brigade Žilina on Slovakia. The first part describes basic disinfection procedures for intervention in the contaminated area. The second part describes the specifics and the negative effects of swine fever. The third part deals with tactics of elimination swine fever with Fire rescue brigade Žilina.

ARTICLE INFO


Key wordsswine fever, focal disinfection, biological contamination, Fire & Rescue Brigade Zilina

Introduction

The biological risk exposure of a human or other living organism to the ac-tion of biological agents such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, yeasts and molds. Biological agents mean microorganisms including genetically modified organisms, cell cultures and human endoparasites, which can cause infec-tions, allergies or poisoning. Risk of contamination by microorganisms is that the micro-organism to the human or other living organism will not appear immediately, but only after the incubation period.

Etiologic agent of infection (the causative agent or the infectious agent or biological agent) is any cellular or non disease-causing (pathogenic) mi-

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Michal Orinčák

cro-organism (bacteria, viruses, rickets, mold and fungi) and its products (toxins) that are capable of causing mass infection or poisoning person or animal. The very ability of a microorganism to survive outside the host body can take several years. Some of the microorganisms cause disease in humans or an animal (e.g., Rabies, toxoplasmosis, tuberculosis, tetanus, plague, salmonellosis, brucellosis, tularemia, anthrax, psoriasis).

Infectious disease condition with the presence of the agent of the dis-ease in the body of a human or animal. Causative agent of the disease adapts to the environment in which it is located is able to multiply there and disturb the body’s own tissue – the host.

The incubation period is the time that elapses from the microorgan-ism intrusion into the human body or an animal after the first symptoms of the disease.

Outbreak is a place of survival agent of the disease, together with its surroundings, which can spread the infection. Focus continues as long as the agent of the disease it perish, and before the expiration of the maxi-mum incubation period of last resort contact with the material of biolog-ical origin.

Space is s strict isolation or quarantine the person or animal suspected of being infected due to contact with a source of infection or due to stay in the focus of infection for a period bounded by the length of the incubation period of the disease. It’s a geographical area determined by hygienist with an outbreak of disease.

Protection of members of rescue services intervening before the ma-terial of biological origin during liquidation work in the contaminated area lies in the use of funds Breathing designed to protect the airway and full-coverage protection body surface. Pathogenic microorganisms can penetrate into the body affecting members as follows:– alimentary (touch) – infection can be entered in the gastrointestinal

tract dirty hands,– aerosol – infection can be entered in the respiratory tract as a droplet

infectious agent,– transmissive – the bite of an infected insect bites or infected animal,– eye or mucous membranes of the nasal mucosa,– through damaged skin.

To destroy contaminants of biological origin or minimize the use of pathogenic effects of disinfection and sterilization procedures.

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Swine Fever Epicentre Elimination

Disinfection is a type of decontamination, which includes a set of methods and procedures applied specifically to kill pathogenic organ-isms on objects and locations from which you can transfer them to a living organism – infection.

Sterilization is usually carried out on the use of (contaminated) medi-cal supplies to be permanently deprived of any microorganisms. Steriliza-tion as such do not perform on humans and other living organisms.

Disinfection operations should be carried out in the prescribed man-ner, so as to effectively suppress all forms of microorganism survival and has stopped its transmission, while ensuring permanent supervision and control of decontamination area to prevent indirect spread of the patho-gen outside of this area.

1. Basic disinfection procedures for intervention in the contaminated area

Disinfection of the complexity of the process of cleaning of contaminated surfaces is divided into:– single or multiple,– dry or wet,– temporary (partial) or permanent (full).

Disinfection is performed by applying the disinfectant solution of the active compound to the contaminated surface to inactivate or kill the micro-organism. In some cases it is necessary surface to be disinfected, first get rid of coarse dirt and mechanical cleaning (suction, scraping, dust-ing, air cooling, wiping, sweeping, washing, ventilation, etc.).

In order to enhance the health and safety of members of intervening components against the possible consequences of infection in contact with the material of biological origin, it is necessary immediately after the ac-tivities in contaminated environments to carry out disinfection of con-taminated surfaces used chemical protective clothing. The aim of disin-fection is to reduce the threats affecting not only members but also others who work with special riot fire equipment. Disinfection performed in the area after the intervention of any activity, generally in close proximity to the border marked by the occurrence of material of biological origin.

Before carrying out disinfection, it is necessary first of all to ensure the safe area separate source of clean water (CAS CAS 25 or 32, respec-tively. ARS-12M) and prepare a disinfectant solution in a bucket, in court

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or in a vehicle ARS-12M. Disinfectant solution is applied to the surface with a brush, sponge, cloth, shower or other suitable means (ARS-12M).

Table 1 Decontamination means of biological agents1

Contaminant Decontaminat agent

Biologic agent Name Reccomeded concentration

Time of exposition(min.)

a,B,c Divosan forte 0,1 – 0,5% 10 min.a,B,c Oxonia aktiv 150 0,1 – 0,3% 10 min.a,B,c Persteril 0,1 – 0,5% 10 min. till drya,B,c Pedox PAA 50 0,1 – 0,5% 10 min. till drya,B,c Pedox PAA 30 0,1 – 0,5% 10 min. till drya,B,c Savo 5,0 – 25,0% 10 min.a,B,c Suprachlor 1% 10 min.a,B,c Chloramine B 2,0 až 5,0% 10 min. till dry

a killing vegetative bacteria, yeast and some microscopic filamentous fungiB inactivationc killing bacterial spores

Disinfection operations should be carried out in the prescribed manner, so as to effectively suppress all forms of microorganism survival and that it stopped its transmission, while ensuring permanent supervision and con-trol of decontamination area to prevent indirect spread of the pathogen outside of this area. The intervening member who uses a gas-tight and pressure suits, can be considered pure because a contaminant is unable to break during use chemical protective clothing to its internal parts and thus contaminate the skin member.

The premises built decontamination work we perform disinfection:– member after his exit from the spaace or direct threat of the space in

which it was carried out the evacuation of vulnerable persons collecting or securing material of biological origin,

1 S. Kolomazník, Likvidácia epidémie klasického moru ošípaných, Záchranná brigáda HaZZ v Žiline, 2004, p. 56.

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– contaminated persons (surface of the skin, hair or clothing parts) after its evacuation from the space direct threat,

– special intervention firefighting equipment or evacuated materials and resources discharged from the zone of direct threat.Disinfection of solid and liquid material of biological origin in the form

of waste or degradation products (faeces) is performed in the area of oc-currence using a concentrated disinfectant and prepared solutions with a higher concentration of an active agent to be applied to the contami-nated surface leave the long-term work with a view to the inactivation of micro-organisms.

Chemical disinfection of the surface of the compositions, the wet process is performed by coating, spraying, or washing in a disinfectant solution to the contaminated surface or by dipping and washing the used composition. The aim is to prevent or reduce the possibility of second-ary contamination of personal material of biological origin in handling the means used outside the area of intervention.

When the action of the active chemical substance (reducing its reactiv-ity) should be disinfected surface of the chemical protective garment mul-tiply rinsed or washed clean with warm water. After completion of the dis-infection can break the seal of a chemical suit and a member can withdraw from the so-called protective clothing. “Cleanroom” where the dress in emergency clothing.

Used equipment Breathing is necessary after the intervention and dis-infect the inside of soaking in disinfectant solution (usually on the prem-ises of the fire station – in the wet part of the enclosure Breathing).

Soaking chemical protective clothing used in the disinfectant solution results in a long-term open-ended to the active substance, and is designed to destroy pathogenic micro-organisms (bacteria, virus, fungus, yeast) in-cluding protective spores, where they could survive.

After thorough rinsing with pure water several times, we can wear me-chanical scraping to dry the moisture of the net fabric and brought to dryness in a stream of clean air at a temperature of 40‒50°C. After drying of clothes should be allowed to ventilate hang it up in the open air for at least 24 hours.

Implementation of the one-step disinfection

One-step disinfection chemical protective clothing after the intervention in a contaminated environment should be carried out sequentially:

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1. surface of the chemical protective garment material mechanically cleaned of biological origin rubbing (friction) with thick brush bristles, sponge, cloth, where appropriate chemical protective garment surface wetting,

2. the surface chemical protective clothing disinfectant solution applied with a brush or the cleaning equipment and rubbed him or rub into all folds and hidden areas (soles and boots),

3. the active substance is to be let work properly (generally 2‒10 minutes, depending on the concentration of the active substance),

4. the end of the action of the active ingredient (the prescribed reaction time) poly garment washed with clean warm water, thereby causing di-lution of the reaction material and the material of biological origin,

5. firefighter is transferred to the clean end of the decontamination area, which violates the tightness of clothing, undress and undresses the chemical protective clothing.

Implementation of the multi-stage disinfection

Procedure for two-stage or multi-stage disinfection of the surface of the chemical protective garment is similar to the one-step disinfection, but the application of the disinfectant solution to the surface of the chem-ical protective garments, and rinsing with water is carried out several times in succession.

2. swine fever – conditions and negative effects

The first swine fever epizootic occurred in 1833 in the US, Ohio. In 1937, the recorded incidence of plague in South Carolina and in 1938 in Georgia. In 1845 epizootic plague was reported in ten US states, in the period 1846‒1855 was reported 93 epizootic diseases in thirteen US states. The spread of infection swine fever extends the in England and the Scandinavian countries, and there forward throughout Europe. Some of the opinions of experts say that the situation has developed in exactly the opposite, that is, the swine fever was after the primary occurrence in Europe introduced to the USA2.

The originator of swine fever has long been considered the germ sui-pestifer bacterium (Salmonella cholerae-suis). Only after evidence of viral etiology in 1903 research sea to benefit from a science-based knowledge to its purposeful control and combat. In the 21st century, the swine fever 2 F. Volná et al., Dezinfekcia a sterilizácia – teória a prax, Vrana Žilina 1999, p. 89.

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spread worldwide. The degree of infestation, however, in different conti-nents different. Affected are those countries with intensive pig. During the 2nd World War in Europe it was widespread in the last thirty years is limited, and in some states, having been completely destroyed. Despite the constant threat they are without sea: Finland, Denmark, Sweden, Ice-land, Ireland, Norway and England. In the other countries of Western Europe are areas of endemic plague, which are kept under control. Strong-er infested as Italy, Spain, Portugal a Greece. Due to the specific prophy-laxis of the countries of Central and Eastern Europe, virtually no sea. In Canada he was recorded last occurrence of plague in 1964 and in the US since 1972 swine fever appeared only sporadically. In Africa, the most contaminated countries. In Asia, the degree of infestation of each regional considerably different. Particularly hard hit are Vietnam, the Philippines and India. In the past, heavily infested Australia is only in rare flare sea completely disease-free.

Currently in Slovakia it does not foresee the occurrence of swine fever in clinical form, for which we owe a systematic implementation of specific prophylaxis and application veterinary measures.

2.1. Causes of the infection (epizootology)

Swine fever is one of the few viral infections in which the natural occurrence confined to a single species. The source of infection are always pigs present in the incubation stage, clinically sick or infected inaparentne, they secret-ed secretions, slaughter products, and meat products. Morbidity sea is very high: 80‒100% mortality: 60‒70%. The infection is transmitted and spread in the population of the contaminated animal husbandry mainly horizontal, direct virus transmission from animal to animal or indirectly infected feed and materials. The infested farms with atypical, inapparent how the sea has a big role in vertical transmission of infection to sow suckling piglets. In-fected pigs can infect healthy animals during the incubation period, because in the excreta, mainly urine virus may be present as early as 24 hours after infection. In feverish conditions the virus in addition to urine found in se-cretions of the eyes, nose and trachea. The infection is transmitted by blood and excretion from the body openings sick animals. Faeces, if not bloody, are less infectious because the virus due to rotting quickly perish. Infection is easily expanded emergency slaughter pigs, in particular the meat of animals slaughtered in the incubation stage, because the authorities will not find out

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changes suggestive that it is a plague. Pigs infected with the virus do not exclude natural way for longer than 26‒30 days.

Swine fever virus are grouped less resistant viruses. The assessment of resistance of the virus in infectious materials from infected animals to be distinguished from the virus bound to the cells and tissues, such as. blood, organs, meat and meat products, and free virus secreted secretions. The virus is bound to the cells is considerably more resistant than free virus. It plays an important role if the virus is found in wet or dry envi-ronments. The dried virus is much more durable e.g. dry, eye discharge remains infectious 15 days, dried blood up to several years.

Of particular importance for the spread of swine fever have animals with atypical course of the disease. They include chronically diseased pigs called. zakrpatence that long harbor the virus in the blood, in the lymph system and internal organs. These animals secrete the virus permanent-ly secretions. The urine of these animals may be infectious even after 200 days of being infected.

2.2.Pathogenesis of infectious disease

Swine fever virus is very infectious. The body gets over the top portion of the digestive system, food and water, or by expiration, by inhalation of infectious aerosols. Infection may also enter the body through the mu-cous membranes of the conjunctiva or genital organs. Infections of the low-er paths digestion apparatus is unlikely because the virus is administered directly into the stomach does not cause disease.

Primary viral replication occurs in almonds from which penetrates into the regional lymph nodes and one to the other lymphoid organs. It is pen-etrating the blood for 16‒24 hours, to start the second phase of the patho-genetic process. The content of virus in the blood rises quickly. Blood of the virus gets to the other lymphoid organs, thymus, spleen, pancreas, liver, lung, intestine, muscle, gland, and bone marrow3. The virus was first multiplies in lymphoid tissue, later in epithelial cells. Hyaline degenera-tion occurs and often complete closure of the blood vessels. The virus is often the primary author of hemoradického pneumonia. The colon causes changes that were previously wrongly considered the effect of salmonella infection cholarae suis. The cause of death is a general circulatory failure and cardiac inflammatory changes of nerve system, in the central or sec-

3 J. Vrtiak et al., Špeciálna epizootológia 2, Bratislava 1986, p. 33.

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ondary inflammatory processes of the respiratory and digestive organs, which are caused by bacterial infections.

The incubation period lasts depending on the virulence of the virus with virulence 3‒6 days and up to 20 days at a weakly virulent strains. Mortality is also highly dependent on the virulence of infectious virus, condition and age of the animals, as well as the degree of premorenosti pigs.

2.3. Profylaxis

Specific methods of prophylaxis based on the fact that pigs have overcome the infection, create immunity that protects them for life against subse-quent infection with virulent virus. SUMMARY specific protection from infection is based on the presence of antibodies, and the presence of cells sensitized virus, swine fever virus (cellular immunity).

Cell-mediated immune response specifically started in pigs challenged after the formation of serum antibodies and observed over a short pe-riod, whereas serum antibodies persist throughout their economic use.4 The formation and persistence of active immunity to infection of pigs is based therefore on the presence of specific antibodies. Standardly, swine fever is economically severe infection that is not treated and sick and sus-pect animals in the outbreak or even beyond must be killed.

2.4. Dezinfection

As disinfecting agents are suitable strong alkalis – 2% caustic soda solu-tion containing 3‒5% lime milk inactivated virus in the blood two hours, the urine in 15 minutes, the walls and floors in one hour. Also effective is the chloride of lime in a ratio of 1: 5 and 1:20. Disinfection is also appli-cable solution of 6% kresilik water.

Secure achieve viral inactivation by heat. In the practice of the suitable temperature: disinfection of clothes and the packaging material 75 DEG C/hour and 30 minutes boiling. Meat and meat products the meat from infected and activated by boiling at 100°C for at least ten minutes.

3. Proposal of disposal procedures by outbreak swine fever by Rescue Brigade HaZZ Zilina

Slovakia stipulates the procedure for disease control Act. 39/2007 Z.z. on veterinary care, as amended. According to this law, the competent veteri-4 J. Záhradnický, Mirkobiológia a epidemiológia, Martin Osveta 1991, p. 112.

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nary authority of the occurrence of infection, suspected of the occurrence or the risk of spread of disease obligation to order protective and control measures. In its decision must state:– date, location and extent of infection,– outbreak.– protection zone,– surveillance zone.

The focus of infection is ordered:– trap a utility pig and assigned table “extremely dangerous infections

of animals – not permitted”,– immediately killing an entire farm in a manner that avoids any risk

of spread of classical swine fever,– disposal of animals slaughtered under official supervision (supervision),– all the material (waste, feed, manure, tools, etc.) Cleaned, disinfected ef-

fectively and harmlessly removed,– after the removal of pigs entire area cleaned and effectively disinfected,– at least 30 days after cleansing and disinfection can be started with

a gradual placement of sentinel piglets. In this “biological experiments” have weaned freedom of movement for the individual objects. The spec-ified dates are made testing for antibodies to classical swine fever. If af-ter the second examination after 42 days stay in the area, the results are negative, it may be declared as defeated.

3.1. the intervention of the rescue brigade Rescue Corps in Zilina with swine fever in the district of Prievidza in 2003

In Slovakia, in past outbreaks of classical swine fever occurred primari-ly in wild feral. As from 2000, did not carry out preventive vaccination of domestic pigs, significantly increased the risk of transmission of in-fection from wild boar to domestic pigs, especially in places where they are flooded by wild boars. Such a situation occurred at the end of 2003 in the district of Prievidza. Despite the received quarantine measures were gradually spread infection of classical swine fever on farms in Nitrica Dol-né Vestenice, Kostolná Ves, Opatovce nad Nitrou and in the trash.

Rescue Brigade Rescue Corps in Zilina was sent to carry out the final disinfection after fulfillment of other measures by the owners of individ-ual farms. In consultation with representatives of Veterinary Services, it was decided to use for disinfection of floors, walls, frames and the exte-

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rior of the pens sodium hydroxide solution, the other part (technologi-cal equipment for feeding and watering, wiring) of chloramine B because of the aggressiveness of the material smaller. Disinfectant solutions were prepared in four special decontamination vehicles PV3S ARS-12M.

First, it was necessary to warm the water to 80°C to prepare a sodium hydroxide solution at 60°C for the preparation of chloramine B are de-liberately selected temperature at the upper limit of the prescribed stand-ards due to the very low temperature air, and it was necessary to maintain the prescribed temperature (70- 80°C, respectively. 50‒60°C) throughout the application disinfectant solution, which was on average about 90 min-utes. After heating the water in the tanks of the vehicles was a formu-lated 3% sodium hydroxide solution and a 4% solution of chloramine B. The prepared solution was applied on the surface of nozzles, the sensitive electronic equipment fine spray and spreading brushes.

The fulfillment of the tasks was attended by members of the 3 daily services who were permanently present in the area of deployment. Provide training equipment and material, heating the water to a desired tempera-ture before the arrival of the group, cleaning and maintenance of vehicles if daily work, filling the tank with water, the fueling and necessary repair of the equipment.

In the rescue group that was moving every day from the object Res-cue Brigade Rescue Corps in Zilina, was 8 members Amendment. These members upon arrival at the facility preparing disinfectant solutions and carry out final disinfection applying these solutions. Due to the hazards used disinfectants on the human body have all the work done in the means of individual protection – in protective masks M-10 and in chemical pro-tective clothing OPCH-70th.

Gradually was carried out disinfection 17 objects on individual farms. It was used 82 000 L of a 3% solution of sodium hydroxide at 80 and 55 000 of a 4% solution of chloramine B of 60°C. After disinfection were of particular objects collected swab samples and these were evaluated at an accredited testing laboratory of the State Veterinary and Food Institute in Dolny Kubin.

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Fig. 1 Outdoor and indoor pig farm space disinfection

Source: Michal Orinčák, 2004.

The action was realized in the period due to weather conditions put high demands on the organizational support of the event and the tech-nique used. Given the very low air temperatures (up to -18°C) was nec-essary to ensure decontamination garaging cars after the day’s work in areas where the temperature even at night did not fall below 0°C because the drainage aggregates is complicated and lengthy. This requirement was not possible to meet all farms. In such cases, the technology had to be after the end of the work, maintenance, refueling and filling with water transferred to replacement facilities in other municipalities and the next

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morning again back on the job site. Low temperatures significantly pro-long the time needed to heat the water.

Fig. 2 Disinfecting the interior of the pig farms and the preparation of solutions of PV3S ARS-12M


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Daily output was limited:– daylight time because of security reasons, it was not possible to illumi-

nate objects inside,– reduced length of stay affecting members of the isolation means of in-

dividual protection.In carrying out disinfection of indoor air problems it caused a large

amount of steam that arose when applying hot solutions and greatly re-stricts visibility. In outer space was the biggest problem snowy and icy sur-faces. Prior to the disinfection has been necessary first to remove snow and ice mechanically and hot water, and then was coated disinfectant solution.

Due to the strict hygiene standards that all people briefed on the pro-hibition of leaving the premises without prior hygienic cleaning and disin-fection. The means of individual protection and all výstrojné part number was prohibited to take outside objects and after the intervention were de-stroyed by burning in a boiler room. All work associated with the disease control is conducted in accordance with professional guidelines and under the supervision of the official veterinarian.

3.2. Process design activities Rescue Brigade Rescue Corps in Zilina individual stations

Post no. 1 – Recommended action:– secure and mark the only entrance and exit to the outbreak. Building and

sign disinfection ford for engineering of no less than 1.5 times the cir-cumference of the largest tire vehicles. The establishment of disinfect-ant mats for people to ensure the registration of persons and equipment. Acceptance build a counter for food supplies used only for food imports,

– close and guard the entrance to the outbreak, as well as the entire area outbreak and prevent uncontrolled entry and egress of persons outbreak. Access roads to be closed from the outside with the help of members of the PZ,

– time in respect of watering mats disinfection fords a 3% solution of chlo-rinated lime, chloramine or suprachlórom and every 2‒4 hours,

– disinfect equipment 3‒5% solution of chlorinated lime, chloramine or suprachlórom, allowed to act for 30 minutes and then rinsed,

– perform other necessary measures.

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The proposed activity Rescue Brigade Rescue Corps in station no. 1:– provide access to the center of infection,– disinfect technique based on an outbreak,– staff: 2‒4 members to provide input to the outbreak (only if necessary)

and 3‒5 members performing work on disinfection techniques,– Equipment: 2 x PV3S ARS-12M, WAP, Handy power sprayer STI-

HL, disinfectant mats, use WAP, just in case the availability of source of water.

Fig. 3 Chemical PV3S the spray truck/ADR – 12 M in the decontamination of ground


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Fig. 4 Disinfection of equipment based on the outbreak


Post no. 2 (operation of the focus of infection) – Recommended ac-tions: – with the help of special equipment (PV3S ARS-12M) to perform work

in the farmyard disinfection of premises and equipment, infrastructure, unpaved surfaces and slurry as well as mechanical engineering and farm-yard cleaning equipment,

– disinfect the stable space and has 2‒5% sodium hydroxide solution (NaOH), 4% chloramine B, 5% of bleach or suprachlórom. Chlora-mine B is used as a disinfectant only while stocks last, because according to EU directives is the production ended in 2006. A replacement full disinfectant became Suprachlór,

– Persteril disinfected slurry of 0.3% formalin or 1% (by addition of 1 kg Lime chloride content of the 50 l), after mixing, allowed to act for 24 hours and then exported to field. Biotermicky disinfected manure composting. Disinfect the soil surface 4‒5% sodium hydroxide solution in an amount of 10 l per 1 m2 of area,

– perform other necessary measures.The proposed activities of rescue brigades HaZZ at the station no. 2:

– disinfect the stable space special equipment PV3S ARS-12M by means of a nozzle, brush, the front bar, spray nozzle, and a large hand using a portable sprayer intended for the cleaning of the used material. For these works, it is necessary to use specially trained staff – engineer for

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use 2 pieces of special disinfecting techniques PV3S ARS-12M for min. of 4 members. The ideal option is to use members of the chemical – en-vironmental team, because it is necessary to mixing decontamination solutions. On the use of hand decontamination, portable sprayers can also be used HaZZ members of the respective district who synergisti-cally involved in the liquidation outbreak.

– staff: 6 members– equipment: 2 pieces PV3S ARS-12M, and 5 units of portable sprayers

( Johan Enviro – mechanical, thin – engine).

Fig. 5 Disinfection of stable farmyard areas with PV3S ARS-12M


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Post no. 3 (activity to disinfect people) – Recommended action:– entering nursing staff and other persons necessarily entering the out-

break must be absolutely ensured through hygienic filter – disinfection of people, changing rooms, toilets, showers; ensure disinfection – chem-ical treatment of clothing, footwear or incineration.

– perform other necessary measures.The proposed activity Rescue Brigade Rescue Corps in station no. 3:

– building sites for hygienic cleansing of persons. Hygienic cleansing of persons developing through three tents equipped with shower facil-ities with a small set of the bathing. The possibility of using decon-tamination showers for decontamination DEKONTA people. Chemical treatment of clothing and footwear in the ferry disinfectant,

– Staff: at least 3 members to ensure the hygienic filter who can also use PDP-2,

– Equipment: PV3S vehicle for the transport of the PDP-2, and a vehicle for the transport of water 815/CAS-32 or T-148/32 CAS (CAS useful as a water source).

Fig. 6 Decontamine shower DEKONTA


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Fig. 7 Place for hygiene of staff


Post no. 4 (activity in established mrchovišti) – Recommended actions:– on the instructions of the responsible official veterinarian dispose of dead

and slaughtered animals in an area infested area Economic Justice re-spectively. in the nearby area. Carcass disposal by burning or burial car-ried out, followed by spreading lime,

– perform other necessary measures.The proposed activity Rescue Brigade Rescue Corps in station no. 4:

– perform editing access roads to space burial of dead or killed animals,– carry out excavation and earthworks associated with the burial of animals

because in the vicinity do not expect incineration of animal carcasses,– loading and transportation of dead or killed animals,– persons: 3 members – machinists and 3 members of the laborer in

the handling of dead animals and for disinfection pits,– Technology: T-815 UDS 214 – versatile finishing machine CN 251 –

wheel loader and T815/S – vehicle animal transport and materials.

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Fig. 8 Training of slaugthered pig mass waste with KN 251 a T 815 UDS-214


Post no. 5 (emergency accommodation and meals) – Recommended actions:– manage emergency accommodation and meals for members.

The proposed activity Rescue Brigade Rescue Corps in station no. 5:– provide accommodation own units in tents S-65 fully equipped – hy-

gienic and warm linings, outdoor chairs, lighting, outdoor oven with a spark arrestor and flues,

– ensuring health care intervening members (medical tent),– provide meals at the field kitchen POKA the economic dispenser where

you can prepare meals 3 times a day for 50 to 150 people,

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– persons: 2 employees – cooks and 2‒3 staff – kitchen assistants,– Equipment: 1 x PV3S POKA, 1 x PV3S – import food and tents S-65

for accommodation.

Fig. 9 Rest place

Source: Michal Orinčák, 2011

Fig. 10 Health care place

Source: Michal Orinčák, 2011

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Conclusion

After the announcement of swine plague outbreak is identified and marked as protection zone – within a 2 km radius around the outbreak, where the disease broke out, the supervisory zone – within 5 km. Local veteri-nary authorities immediately ordered in different areas to take measures designed to prevent the spread of infection. Rescue Brigade Rescue Corps in Zilina in cooperation with the other components IRS provides and de-stroys outbreak, performs disinfection and monitoring meteorological con-ditions in supervisory (monitoring) zone. An important factor in setting up the decontamination work is to determine the direction of the prevailing wind by weather stations. Decontamination of work established such that the potential wind contaminate the clean part of the space. Monitoring weather conditions must run continuously in the case of a change in wind direction, the incident commander instructs to move the decontamination work. To ensure entry and exit from the protection zone into the sur-veillance zone, it is appropriate members of the Police Corps. The very existence of the disease process and its spread is influenced by three basic conditions that are linked together. The first condition is the presence of the source of infection, the second condition, carrying out transmission of the disease, and the third condition is the presence of the susceptible population. If either of these conditions is absent or disrupted, there can be no propagation process, or already resulting contagion process stops. This principle must be respected in developing new methodologies for disposal outbreaks. Fig 11 shows a proposed schematic design of the decontamina-tion work on liquidation swine fever foci of infection with the use of forces and means of rescue brigades HaZZ in Zilina.

References

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2. Kolomazník S., Likvidácia epidémie klasického moru ošípaných, Záchran-ná brigáda HaZZ v Žiline, 2004.

3. Košík Š., Činnosť jednotiek požiarnej ochrany pri dekontaminácii prostried-kov používaných pri likvidácii ekologickej havárie, Spravodajca požiarnej ochrany – Teória a prax, 1995, č. 1.

4. Matoušek J., Benedík J., Linhart P., Biologické zbraně, Ostrava 2007.

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5. Sojková A., Schön K., Režimy života v oblastiach ohrozenia pri vzniku mimoriadnych udalostí, Akadémia PZ, Bratislava 1998.

6. Volná F. et al., Dezinfekcia a sterilizácia – teória a prax, Vrana Žilina, 1999.

7. Vrtiak J. O. Hejlíček K. et al., Špeciálna epizootológia 2, Bratislava 1986.8. Záhorec M., Nebezpečenstvo kontaminácie zasahujúcich záchranných

zložiek, Spravodajca – Protipožiarna ochrana a záchranná služba, 2003, č. 4.

9. Záhradnický J., Mirkobiológia a epidemiológia, Martin Osveta, 1991.10. Zákon č. 315/2001 Z. z. o Hasičskom a záchrannom zbore v znení

neskorších predpisov.11. Zákon č. 337/1998 Z. z. o veterinárnej starostlivosti a o zmene a dopl-

není niektorých ďalších zákonov.12. Zákon č.39/2007 Z.z. o veterinárnej starostlivosti v znení neskorších

predpisov.13. Zákon NR SR č. 42/1994 Z. z. o civilnej ochrane obyvateľstva v znení

neskorších predpisov (úplné znenie – zákon č. 47/2012 Z. z. o civilnej ochrane obyvateľstva).

14. Zákon č.129/2002 Z.z. o integrovanom záchrannom systéme v znení neskorších predpisov.

15. Vyhláška MV SR č. 533/2006 o podrobnostiach o ochrane obyvateľst-va pred účinkami nebezpečných látok.

16. Pokyn prezidenta HaZZ č. 48/2003 o vykonávaní dezinfekcie a steri-lizácie pri kontakte s biologickým materiálom.

17. Pokyn prezidenta HaZZ č. 70/2003 o výkone protiplynovej služby v Hasičskom a záchrannom zbore (poriadok protiplynovej služby).

18. Rozkaz č. 20/2007 prezidenta Hasičského a záchranného o vydaní Takticko-metodických postupov vykonávania zásahov.

19. Rozkaz č.47/2009 prezidenta Hasičského a záchranného zboru, ktorým sa mení rozkaz prezidenta Hasičského a záchranného zboru č. 20/2007 o vydaní Takticko- metodických postupov vykonávania zá-sahov.

20. Metodický list č. 104 MV SR – prezídia HaZZ Dekontaminácia príslušníkov zasahujúcich zložiek.

21. Metodický list č. 66 MV SR – prezídia HaZZ vykonávanie dekontam-inácie pomocou vozidla PV3S/ARS 12-M.

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22. Metodický list č. 106 MV SR – prezídia HaZZ zdolávanie požiarov v mimoriadnych podmienkach – nebezpečenstvo infekcie.


M. Orinčák, Swine Fever Epicentre Elimination, “Security Dimensions. International and National Studies”, 2017, no 21, p. 159-183, DOI 10.24356/SD/21/9.

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