T he W or ld of L ullabies

T anya L avoie

W ilfr id L aur ier Univer sity

F aculty of M usic

M usic T her apy Depar tment

Super visor :

Dr. Heidi Ahonen, PhD, MTA

M ethodological key wor ds:

Qualitative; musical analysis; phenomenological approach; abductive reasoning; Forinash & Gonzalez adaptation of Ferrara’s phenomenological analysis; listening; participant

questionnaire

C ontent key wor ds:

Lullaby; music; emotion; meaning; culture: baby; mother; parent; vocal; musical elements; dynamics; melody; clinical applications; premature infants; paediatric pain;

palliative care

B iogr aphy

Tanya Lavoie completed the Master of Music Therapy program at Wilfrid Laurier

University in 2010. She holds a BMus, music therapy, from Université du Québec à

Montréal, as a piano major. She is completing her internship at the Montréal Children’s

Hospital and has clinical experience with children with developmental delays, autism,

infants and with children in hospital and rehabilitative settings.

A cknowledgments

I would like to thank my supervisor, Dr. Heidi Ahonen. Her guidance and

encouragement gave me the confidence and strength to both undergo and complete this

research process. I would also like to thank Dr. Colin Andrew Lee and Dr. Carolyn

Arnason for sharing their knowledge and experience of music therapy.

I would like to thank my classmates Kim Manning, Kristen Anderson, Rachel Suljic,

Christine Dibble, Joel Kroeker, Naoko Matsumura McKee and Teresa Schettini for their

support and helpful responses during their participation in the data analysis workshop.

I am very thankful for my family’s unwavering support and unconditional love

throughout my entire academic process, allowing me to choose and follow my own path.

Thanks to my mom, my dad and my brother for helping me search and locate lullaby

CD’s, going to the library several times when I could not go myself. Thank you and I

love you.

A bstr act

This qualitative research looks at culturally diverse lullabies. The effects of lullabies on

adult listeners were examined, as well as the musical similarities and differences of 6

selected lullabies. The reflexive and empirical forms of phenomenological inquiry were

used to analyze these lullabies. The researcher analyzed the 6 lullabies using Ferrara’s

method of musical analysis, and participants completed a questionnaire after listening to

each lullaby. The data were categorized according to two main sections: musical

elements and responses to the songs. The discussion chapter looks at the clinical

applications of lullabies in music therapy practice.

C D I ndex

1 - Yalla Tnam Rima: Middle-Eastern - Arabic

2 - Ikope Ye Tollo: African - Equatorial Guinea

3 - Videvisan: Swedish

4 - Duerme Negrito: Cuban, Argentinean

5 - Edo No Komori Uta: Japanese

6 - Cape Breton Lullaby: Canadian - Nova-Scotia

T AB L E OF C ONT E NT S A cknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i A bstr act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii C D I ndex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii T able of C ontents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv C hapter 1: H ow it begins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.2 Literature Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 C hapter 2: H ow it wor ks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 2.1 Research Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 2.2 Research Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 2.3 Stance of the Researcher. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 2.4 Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 C hapter 3: W hat it’ s all about . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 3.1 It’s all in the music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 3.2 Responses to all songs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 3.3 Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 C hapter 4: W hat to do with it . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 4.1 Emotional aspects and Imagery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 4.2 Musical elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 4.3 Clinical applications of lullabies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 C hapter 5: H ow it ends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 R efer ences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Discogr aphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 A ppendices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Appendix A - Ethical Review Approval Letter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Appendix B - Consent Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Appendix C - Participant Questionnaire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Appendix D - Data Analysis Workshop Questionnaire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Appendix E - Data Analysis Workshop Responses Song 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Song 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

Song 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Song 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 Song 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Song 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Least like/Preferred . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

1

T he W or ld of L ullabies

C H APT E R 1: H OW I T B E G I NS

1.1 I NT R ODUC T I ON

For some years I have been interested in lullabies and why they are so frequently used

with babies and children to facilitate sleep. What is it about the lullaby that appears to

have such an effect? Is it the music itself? Is it the tone we use when we sing lullabies?

Is it the emotional intent that the singer gives to the lullaby that is most soothing? And

what about the cultural differences in the music? How are lullabies different from culture

to culture, and can a lullaby from one culture still have the same calming and soothing

effect on infants and babies of another culture?

The most basic question that I found surprisingly difficult to answer was: what

constitutes a lullaby? I have found little information on the lullaby other than a few

definitions in the musical and regular dictionaries. This leads me to consider that perhaps

it is defined by its use and not exclusively by its musical elements. I would define

‘lullaby’ as a song, sung or played primarily to babies and young children, to calm and

sooth them, and to lull them to sleep.

Musicologically, there is little literature on what constitutes a lullaby. For other musical

forms, you will find which elements make this form identifiable from others.

Musicologists have written extensively about the sonata, rondo, mazurka, and about

music from native cultures, but I have yet to see any extensive study or work on the

lullaby. Does it even merit a more in depth look?

2

Pur pose of the study

In music therapy with babies and young children, the word lullaby comes up often in the

type of music used with this population. However, I found it odd that the researchers and

authors of articles pertaining to the population rarely define lullaby, and often do not

even specify which lullabies they use. I also did not understand why the only reason they

seem to use lullabies is because that is the type of music that is generally used to sooth

young children.

I intend on working with child populations that are culturally diverse. The purpose of

this study was to allow me to gain a better understanding of the musical properties and

qualities of lullabies, while also finding out the differences that are present in lullabies

from different cultures. Having this understanding will allow me to make more informed

choices when it comes to selecting music in my future clinical work.

1.2 L I T E R A T UR E R E V I E W

This initial literature review was to allow me to find a direction for this research. A more

complete literature review will be present in chapter 4, as it will create a dialogue with

my reflections and the results of this research.

The lullaby is “originally, a vocal piece designed to lull a child to sleep with repeated

formulae” (Oxford Music Online), and “it is simple, soothing, rhythmic, and repetitive”

(Cass-Beggs & Cass-Beggs, 1969, p.5). This is a very simple definition, but the lullaby

may have different meanings depending on the culture from which it comes. Cass-Beggs

3

(1969) write that although the lullaby is deemed to be simple music, it is “colored by the

thoughts, beliefs and feelings of the nation or race from which [it comes]” (p.5).

It is understood that music is different from culture to culture. Therefore, we might also

surmise, “different cultures give music different meanings” (Titon, 2002, p.3). The

meaning behind the words appears to be of the most importance, as some of the words

themselves are more akin to baby talk. Words used in lullabies are often altered from the

regular spoken words, in order to make them sound more assonant and pleasing to the ear

(Oxford Music Online; Cass-Beggs & Cass-Beggs, 1969). It has also been noted, that in

some cultures the lyrics are positive, while in others the message is negative. In other

cases, the lullaby is more a story of the teller than for the audience, or an instilment of

cultural values which children learn and assimilate as they age (Trehub, Unyk & Trainor,

1993; Unyk, Trehub, Trainor & Schellenberg, 1992; Cass-Beggs & Cass-Beggs, 1969;

Oxford Music Online).

Linked to musical meaning is emotion, and research in this area is extensive and varies

greatly. According to Juslin and Sloboda (2001), there are 10 perspectives on music and

emotion. In the music therapy perspective, emotion is best expressed through musical

improvisation. They also mention that infants and newborns can “ ‘tune in’ ” to subtle

shifts in vocal timbre, tempo, and volume variations” (p.193), especially when interacting

with their mothers. The importance of these interactions for the baby’s psychological and

emotional development, as well as for the development of the emotional attachment

between mother and child, have been thoroughly explored by Stern (1985; 1990; 1995)

and Trevarthen (1979; 2010). It has also been observed that newborns and infants prefer

4

when their mothers sing rather than speak, and that their attention is most focused when

the mother sings to them, rather than singing in general (Tafuri, 2008). This suggests

that, for the infant, singing elicits greater emotional responses than speech. Can this still

be the same with adults? When adults listen to lullabies, would they respond more to the

music than if someone was to speak to them and tell them to relax and be calm? Would

they still have strong emotional responses as they did when they were children? As

mentioned earlier, the purpose of the lullaby is to lull the infant to sleep, but how do

adults react to this music?

It is understood that across different languages, the intonation and meaning of the spoken

word is also different. Since lullabies are universal, is it possible that the meaning and

emotion behind a lullaby can still be perceived by someone who does not understand the

words? In classical instrumental music, western or eastern, there are no words, yet we

perceive and feel the emotion coming through the music. But do we really feel the

music? Experiments by Hailstone, Henly, Frost, Kenward, & Warren, (2009) showed

that the perception of emotion conveyed by a melody is affected by the identity or timbre

of the musical instrument on which it is played (p. 2151). Zentner, Grandjen and Scherer

(2008), observed that “emotions were less frequently felt in response to music than they

were perceived as expressive properties of the music” (p.500).

Because I looked primarily into vocal lullabies, I thought it important to find some

literature about melody. Melody is defined by pitch, timbre, intervals and tonality

(Aldridge & Aldridge, 2008). The quality of the melody will be altered if it is in major or

minor, or if it is in a mode. Using carious rhythms will also affect the quality of the

5

melody. The pattern and contour is also an important aspect of the melody as it will be

most helpful for the listener in determining where the tension and release is in the

melody. In anthropological studies, information on the musical aspects of lullabies is

sparse and focus appears to be more on the lyrics of the songs rather than on the music

itself.

Based on the missing pieces in the literature, the lullaby seems to have been set aside as

not worth researching or investigating. Perhaps this is because it is such a universal

concept and throughout history it has been a musical genre utilized primarily by mothers

and female caretakers. I found a great deal of literature on music and emotion, some on

melody, and music for children such as the ‘Childs Tune’ explained in Nordoff-Robbins

(2007). However, I found it increasingly difficult to find specific information on lullabies

and on cross-cultural perspectives of lullabies. In conducting the present study, it was

difficult finding musical excerpts of vocal lullabies. There is a vast selection of

professionally recorded lullabies, but they have all been harmonized and made more

complex.

With this research, I hope to answer some of the questions I was unable to answer in the

literature review and to acquire some understanding into the emotional, cultural and

musical value of the lullaby.

6

7

C H APT E R 2: H OW I T W OR K S

2.1 R E SE A R C H QUE ST I ONS

The research questions are as follows:

- Which musical elements are different or similar when comparing lullabies from

different cultures?

- What emotions and/or images are evoked when listening to lullabies from

different cultures?

- Are there significant differences or similarities when adults from different

cultural backgrounds listen to lullabies from different cultures than their own?

2.2 R E SE A R C H DE SI G N

Par adigm

I used qualitative methods to conduct this research (Guba & Lincoln, 1994). The

qualitative paradigm allowed me to focus on the musical qualities of the lullabies being

researched. It also allowed me to integrate the data from the musical analysis I

performed, with the feedback received from the participants. Because the music and the

participants were culturally diverse, the social and emotional connections the participants

and the researcher had to the music influenced the feedback and analysis. With

qualitative research, I was able to include the variables into the data.

E pistomological V iewpoint

It is possible to know that there are distinct differences between lullabies from various

cultures. It is possible to identify the different elements that make up a lullaby and to be

better informed by this analysis when using lullabies in a clinical setting. There are

8

cultural associations and connections that influence which emotions are invoked when

listening to lullabies. These thoughts are based on my personal and professional

experiences as a musician, student music therapist, and human being.

R easoning

Abductive reasoning (Pierce, 1965), was used to interpret the data. I learned about

abductive reasoning in my Qualitative Research Course, through Dr. Ahonen’s

powerpoint presentation (2010). Abductive reasoning describes and interprets data

collected while giving a direction on how to analyze and present the results. It also

allowed me to make connections with what I already knew on the subject, as well as help

me to decide which theories and existing studies would be best to validate my research.

These connections were made in the discussion chapter by creating a dialogue between

the results and further literature review.

Phenomenology

“Phenomenology is a research method that unfolds events the way they are experienced

by people and describes the essential qualities of these experiences” (Smeijsters, 1997,

p.52). I used phenomenology (Forinash & Grocke, 2005) to study the experience my

participants and myself had when listening to lullabies from different cultural

backgrounds. I looked at the meaning and relevance the different lullabies had for the

participants, as I encouraged them to share and fully describe their experiences during the

music listening (more information will be given about participants and data collection in

point 2.4 Data Collection).

9

I used two forms of phenomenology to collect the data. First, I used the reflexive form

(Ferrara, 1991; can Kaam, 1959; can Manen, 1990), utilizing Ferrara’s method (Ferrara,

1984, 1991) of musical analysis, which will be described further. Second, I used the

empirical form (van Kaam, 1959; Fiorfi, 1975; Colaizzi, 1978), collecting data through

the description of the participants’ experiences during the music listening. Using both the

reflexive and empirical forms of phenomenology allowed me to gain a better

understanding of the lullabies themselves, as well as the various emotions that are evoked

in listeners from different cultural groups.

2.3 ST A NC E OF T H E R E SE A R C H E R

I am aware that the selection of the musical material under analysis was entirely my own

and worthy of analytical scrutiny. The reasoning behind this research is abductive

because of my previous knowledge, preferences and experiences with music therapy and

lullabies. This put me at risk of interpreting the data selectively and neglecting some

possibilities of meaning over those that correspond to my preexisting theoretical

framework (Ruud, 2005, p. 42).

In order to increase the study’s trustworthiness, the data was gathered from several

sources (researcher’s analysis and participant questionnaires of the musical recordings).

More over, the musical selections were reviewed by research peers, and musical reviews

in the literature were also found. This provided me with three ways of validating the

study, as my interpretations were compared to those of unbiased peers, participants and

descriptions found in the literature on lullabies and emotion. To increase the credibility

of the lullabies used in the data collection, I selected the music by referring myself to the

10

details in the CD booklets, as well as asking the opinions of colleagues who were from

the same cultural background as some of the lullabies (Japanese and South American

lullabies).

2.4 DA T A

Data C ollection

I first set out to look for multicultural lullabies that were vocal only, meaning that they

would have a single voice without any instrumental accompaniment. The initial search

proved difficult and it was decided that some instrumental accompaniment would be part

of the chosen lullabies. I looked at lullabies from various CD collections in different

libraries and stores. I observed that multicultural lullaby CDs were very rare, and often

did not have a very wide range of culturally diverse lullabies.

I decided on 6 lullabies that I deemed represented the biggest and widest cultural groups

of the world. They will be named shortly. These lullabies were selected from 4 different

CD sources.

- Le monde en berceuses

- Putumayo Presents - African Dreamland

- Doudou: Le monde des berceuses à capella, Vol. 1

- 48 Berceuses du Monde

11

The selected lullabies are as follows, with the language they were sung in as well as the

region of the world from which they come, and the English translation. The reader is

welcome to listen to the lullabies as you read through this section.

-Y alla T nam R ima: sung in Arabic it comes from Lebanon, Palestine, Syria,

Jordan region

G o to sleep R ima

Go to sleep Rima Let her sleep in peace Let her learn to pray Let her learn to fast

Let her enjoy good health Day after day

12

Go to sleep Go to sleep

I will grab for her a dove Don’t believe it

I am teasing Rima to let her go to sleep

Cute little Rima Her hair is fair and well-fixed

Those who love her will kiss her And those who don’t will not be kissed

Oh, the seller of grapes

And the vineyard Tell my mother Tell my father

The Gypsy took her to Mary’s tent

Tishidshe Tishidshe The prunes under the apricot tree

Every time the wind blows I will pick an apricot for Rima

Go to sleep Go to sleep

(Le monde en berçeuses, Montreal Children’s Hospital Foundation, 2009; Translation from Booklet)

-I kope Y e T ollo: sung in the Bubi language, from Equatorial Guinea in Central East-Coast Africa “Ikope Ye Tollo” means “The Birds are Sleeping” in the Bubi language. In the background you

can hear the sounds of the forest and the soft whistles of the birds. “Little darling, don’t cry

13

anymore. Your mother is going to bring a delicious vegetable casserole and the little boy in the

hut will bring you a little dream.”

(Booklet from African Dreamland) -V idevisan: Swedish, Northern Europe

W hicker shr ub Sleep little whicker shrub Because it is still winter

The primrose are still sleeping The pink and the golden button

Spring is still far As well as the rowan-tree Sleep little whicker shrub Because it is still winter

The eye of the sun covers you with heat

It’s rays rocks you in it’s arms Soon the forest path will green

And the flowers lift up their colors Listen to the advice of the sun:

Little whicker shrub bloom The eye of the sun covers you with heat

It’s rays rocks you in it’s arms (Doudou: Le monde des berçeuses à capella, Vol. 1, ;Translated from French by Tanya Lavoie)

-Duer me Negr ito: Spanish, from Cuba, Argentina

Sleep little black one

Sleep, sleep little black one, your mama’s in the fields, little one.

Sleep, sleep little one. She’s going to bring quail for you,

She’s going to bring fresh fruit for you, she’s going to bring pork for you,

She’s going to bring many things for you.

14

And if the little black one doesn’t go to sleep,

The white devil will come and – sap! – he’ll eat your little foot!

Sleep, sleep little black one, your mama’s in the fields, little one.

She’s working hard, working, yes, and they don’t pay her.

Working, and she’s coughing; working, yes, for her sweet little black one.

(48 Berçeuses du Monde; Translation from: http://www.bellevuechamberchorus.net/Research/WorldMusic/Music/DuermeNegrito.htm) -E do No K omor i Uta: Japan

T okyo L ullaby

Sleep, sleep, fall asleep You, my son, is a good child, so sleep Sleepy, where did the care taker go?

Went over the mountain to the village

What was the souvenir from the village? Den-den drum and a shou flute

Woken up little monk with a side ways drum

(48 Berçeuses du Monde http://www.komoriuta.jp/db-a/gakufu; translated by Naoko Matsumura McKee)

-C ape B r eton L ullaby: sung in English with the verse sung in Gaelic, from

Nova-Scotia, Canada

C ape B r eton L ullaby

15

Driftwood is burning blue Wild walk the wall shadows

Night winds go ridin’ by Ridin’ by the lochie meadows

Until the ring of day flows Mira’s stream singin’... Sleep Laddie, sleep Laddie

Sleep the starts away.

Far on Beinn Breagh’s side Wander the lost lambies

Here, there and everywhere, Everywhere, their troubled mammies

Find them and fold them deep Fold them to sleep singin’... Sleep Laddie, sleep Laddie

Sleep the stars away.

Daddy’s on the bay He’ll keep the pot brewin’

He’ll keep things from tumblin’ down Tumblin’ down to rack and ruin

Pray, Mary, send him home, Safe from the foam singin’... Sleep Laddie, sleep Laddie

Sleep the starts away.

(Doudou: Le monde des berçeuses à capella, Vol. 1; Translation in Booklet)

Data Pr epar ation

Because this is a major research paper, sampling was relatively small. I chose 6 lullabies

based on the definition given in the introduction, each from a different cultural

background. I attempted to choose lullabies that are as traditional and authentic as

possible to their cultural background. Authenticity was verified by an extensive research

16

of available music, as well as asking the opinion of colleagues from those cultural

backgrounds. These colleagues were not used as participants for the data collection.

R esear cher

According to the reflexive phenomenological rules (Ferrara, 1984, 1991; van Kaam,

1959; can Manen, 1990), I used myself as part of the data collection, by analysing the

lullabies before presenting them to the participants, to limit being influenced by the

participants’ responses. Using Ferrara’s method, I focused on my own listening

experience and reflected on this experience to analyse the lullabies.

F er r ar a’ s M ethod of M usical A nalysis :

I analysed the 6 chosen lullabies using Ferrara’s Method (Ferrara, 1984, 1991), listening

to the meaning of the music as well as listening for the different elements that make up

the lullabies.

These 5 stages of listening were adapted for music therapy purposes by Forinash &

Gonzalez (1989):

1. Open listening - subjective response: On the first listening I wrote down the

subjective response, including any impressions that stood out (Forinash &

Grocke, 2005, p. 324).

Example from song 2 - little fly buzzing around, near the river.

17

2. Listening for syntactical meaning - describing the sound as it is heard: In this

stage I wrote down all the musical sounds that I heard, including instruments,

embellishments, dynamic changes, and features of melody, rhythm, and harmony

(Forinash & Grocke, 2005, p. 324).

Example from song 1 - sound is fluid, subtle movements in the melody, A section rubato.

3. Listening for semantic meaning: On the third hearing I described what I thought

the meaning of the music was, what mood it suggested, and how I felt (Forinash

& Grocke, 2005, p. 324).

Example from song 3 - nighttime story about a child in a large landscape near a river,

talking about nature.

4. Listening for ontological meaning - the lifeworld of the composer: In the fourth

hearing I put the music into the lifeworld of the composer and tried to understand

what the composer was saying (Forinash & Grocke, 2005, p. 324).

Example from song 5 - Felt like I was being introduced to a dream, allowed to go on a

journey.

5. Open listening - the meaning dimension of all the hearings of the music: In the

final stage of listening, all of my impressions and perceptions from the previous

four hearings were synthesized and integrated to create a final description of the

work (Forinash & Grocke, 2005, p. 325).

18

Example from song 6 - Fire, wind, water, earth, the four elements of nature. Falling

asleep under the stars. Elements of protection in the lyrics, that make me feel safe. There

does not seem to be any emotion in her voice.

Par ticipants

I recruited participants from Wilfrid Laurier University as well as from my own work.

The research setting was at Wilfrid Laurier University, in the John Aird Center, in a

closed room of the music therapy department. Prior to beginning, participants were read

the research information and asked again for consent. There were 3 participants, each

from a different culture group (Asian, Middle-Eastern, and North-American French

Canadian).

Participants were given a questionnaire to complete, which was explained prior to

starting the listening (See Appendix A). Participants were not told that the songs they

were going to listen to were lullabies. They answered three questions for each song:

- How did it make you feel?

- Did you have any images? What were they?

- Did you experience any physical sensations? What were they?

Once the listening was completed, participants answered the final four questions:

- Which piece did you prefer, and why?

- Which piece did you least like, and why?

- Would you consider any of these pieces as lullabies?

- What is your reaction in knowing that all of these pieces are lullabies?

19

Data A nalysis

Once the data collection was completed, I began to analyze the data, using Nvivo 8 for

the open coding. I then proceeded to categorize the participants’ data within the

individual songs and questions, as well as to separately analyze the data collected using

Ferrara’s method. Once this phase was completed, I continued to categorize, combining

the musical analysis data with the participants’ data so as to join certain categories

together, but also to create new ones. I also began to think about what titles would best

encompass these categories.

All of the categories were song specific, with the exception of the category ‘It’s all in the

music’. Each song had a category to best facilitate the analysis of the differences and

similarities of the musical elements. The data from each song were placed in a table and

categorized within that table to ensure clarity. As for the final four questions mentioned

above, I decided to code these separately as they are unique in that they encompass all of

the songs together.

Once the categorization was complete, it was suggested that I make a graph of the data. I

was unable to make one graph of all the data, because the nature of the research separates

the data into specific sections. I did the same with the graphs, making one graph per

section. More information about the graphs will be given in the results chapter. Making

the graphs allowed me to see the data from different points of view and gave me a little

more clarity and direction in how to begin writing about the data in the results chapter.

20

A data analysis workshop was held with my classmates where they filled out a similar

questionnaire to the one the participants had filled out. Because my research was also

investigating the musical elements present in the 6 lullabies, for the workshop I asked

that my classmates also listen for the clinical aspects of the music, as well as any

emotions, images and physical sensations they should have during the listening. The data

analysis workshop allowed me to bring validity to the categories found in the data.

21

C H A PT E R 3: W H AT I T ’ S AL L AB OUT

Because of the nature of the research questions, the results chapter will be divided into

three specific sections. First I will describe the data in the category ‘It’s all in the music’.

Next I will look at the number of responses present per song to see if there are any

significant differences in the number of responses for each song. I will continue with a

description of all the other categories, including the most prominent findings for each.

All of the categories came out of the data analysis. A more detailed description of my

thoughts and ideas about the categories, as well as the validation of these categories will

follow in the discussion chapter.

I ntr oduction

3.1 I T ’ S A L L I N T H E M USI C

This category represents all of the musical elements found in the lullabies. The data used

to create this category comes primarily from the musical analysis data. All of the

lullabies were sung by female vocalists, with lullaby number 5 having two female

vocalists. Two out of the six lullabies had simple instrumentation; lullaby number 4 was

accompanied by a drum, and lullaby number 5 was accompanied by a chinese lap harp.

Lullabies 2 and 5 also had some light nature sounds in the recordings.

In each of the 6 songs, 2 main sub-categories were present: ‘Dynamics’ and ‘Melody’. In

song 4 there was also the sub-category ‘Dancing to the rhythm’, in song 5

‘Instrumentation’, and in song 6 ‘Lacking emotion’. Please look at the table below for

the complete list of codes.

I T ’ S A L L I N T H E M USI C

22

Song 1 Song 2 Song 3

Dynamics consonants

decrescendo rhythmic

rubato light vibrato

pulse low

M elody

melodic patterns melody

musical range fluid space

phrases downward

upward subtle movements

clear not rushed

voice

Dynamics decrescendo

lilts louder

whisper rhythmically

emphasis

M elody downward

female melodic pattern

melody mezzo

no distinct pulse phrases upward voice

Dynamics very soft

even

M elody melodic pattern

melody melody range

mezzo modal

modulation rocking pulse

repeated rhythm voice

singing female simple

Song 4 Song 5 Song 6

Dynamics acceleration dynamics

louder rubato triplets

humming

M elody female

low tone major scale

melody movement

voice

Dancing to the r hythm drum, drum, drums

beat rhythm follow the rhythm but slow

pace dancing to the rhythm of the music

dancing people slow dance

dancing around as a group people having fun dancing

dance slowly 2nd part dance fast

Dynamics unhurried unfinished sharpness

light nasal quality

M elody 2 voices

female voice upward sparse space

pattern melody

lower notes pentatonic mode

I nstr umentation

rain stick lap harp

harp a lady playing a string instrument

Dynamics flat

glissando rubato

tremollos volume increases

soft natural

M elody

female voice melodic

melodic range melody mezzo min7th

octave intervals pulse

vocal, voice

L acking emotion doesn’t seem to be any emotion in her

voice indifferent

sombre

When looking at what affected listeners the most in the music, it appears that the melodic

aspects were the most prevalent. Over half of the responses to all the songs in the ‘It’s all

23

in the music’ category can be placed in the ‘Melody’ subcategory. In this subcategory,

certain words appear in the data for many lullabies: space, pulse, pattern, phrase,

movement and the tonality or mode. These, and synonyms of these words, were also

found in the Data Analysis Workshop (appendix p. 67).

In the subcategory ‘Dynamics’, the volume, tempo and quality of the music was noticed:

crescendo and decrescendo, louder, soft, acceleration, unhurried, sharpness, light, rubato,

flat quality, and nasal quality.

The subcategory ‘Dancing to the rhythm’ is particular to song 4. The instrument in this

song, the drum, was mentioned many times, as well as the word ‘rhythm’. Almost all

participants, including my classmates who completed the Data Analysis Workshop

questionnaire (appendix p. 67), wrote the word ‘dance’ in response to this lullaby.

Whether it was simply ‘dance’, ‘dancing to the rhythm of the music’ or ‘people having

fun dancing’, it was the most prominent.

In subcategory ‘Instrumentation’, the instruments that were heard in song 5 were

identified: rain stick, lap harp, harp, and the image of ‘a lady playing a string

instrument’. There was also the subcategory ‘Lacking emotion’ which was named in

song 6. The data show that the participants felt indifferent to the lullaby as they couldn’t

perceive any emotion in the singer’s voice. This was supported by the information taken

from the Data Analysis Workshop as well as when the participants were asked to choose

their least liked song. A more detailed analysis of the least liked category will follow

later in this chapter.

24

For a visual representation of the distribution of responses in each subcategory, please

refer to Graph 1:

I T ’ S A L L I N T H E M USI C

3.2 R E SPONSE S T O AL L SONG S

25

The number of responses for each song was looked at to determine which songs produced

the most responses. According to Graph 2, Song 5 had the most responses with 23%,

followed by Song 6 with 22%. Song 2 had 18%, Song 4 had 15%, Song 3 had 12%, and

Song 1 had 10%. This could indicate that the songs with higher percentage generated

more emotional, image and physical responses than the songs with a lower percentage.

R E SPONSE S T O A L L SONG S

26

3.3 C A T E G OR I E S

These categories were created with the data pertaining to the emotional, physical and

image reactions of the lullabies. Graph 3 demonstrates the number of responses present

in each category formulated by the data. The other categories found were ‘Mother

Nature’ and ‘Sleep in Peace’; ‘Along the river’ and ‘... and everything in between’:

‘Calming of the heart’; ‘Moving towards something...’; ‘Being in the Garden’ and

‘Finding joy in daily life’; and ‘Being in a coffee chop with friends’ and ‘From the old

Mother Land’.

C A T E G OR I E S

27

M other Natur e

In Song 1, the images of mother and people were very prominent, as well as some

elements of nature. Words such as ‘earth’, ‘water’, ‘warm breeze’, ‘gentle’, ‘softness’,

and ‘soothing’ were found in this category.

Sleep in Peace

Babies are often held and rocked in order to calm them and encourage them to fall asleep.

In song 1, these words and more are illustrated in the sub-categories ‘Holding’ and

‘Calm/Relaxed’. The word ‘calm’ and it’s various forms are present 4 times, the word

‘relaxed’ is seen 3 times, as well as the word ‘rocking’.

Song 1 Mother Nature Natur e Clear sky earth field in the spring warm breeze water flowers M other /People female gentle mom soft softness soothing walking away humanitarian being home as a kid with family islamic cultured people praying light clothing Other easy small story scary image of kidnapping

Sleep in Peace H olding cradle held holding rocked rocking rocking baby sleep C alm/R elaxed calmness calm calming relaxed, relaxing calming in the heart being nice and relaxed feeling of praying

28

A long the R iver

The image of nature is very strong in this second lullaby. There are words such as

‘chirping’, ‘insect’, landscape’, ‘river’ ‘outdoors’, and ‘one with nature’. To me this

brings up an image of being along a river and seeing all the life that surrounds it.

... and ever ything in between

When trying to make one category out of all the sub-categories in song 2, I admit it was a

little difficult; ‘Calm’, ‘Happy’, ‘Movement’, ‘Night and Day’, ‘People’. How could

these sub-categories all fit together under one category? I quickly wrote down ‘and

everything else’ and continued on to another song. When I returned to it, I saw that it

made a sentence with the first category of song 2: ‘Along the river ... and everything else.

Song 2 Along the river

T he r iver buzzing chirping

forested desert hot

insect landscape

little fly buzzing around nature

outdoor outdoors

river open birds

thick trees being outside in nature

being outside one with nature

… and everything in between E ver ything ordinary strength not sure story Amazon with natives children child night time early morning movements in muscle (small) dance walking C alm/R elaxed calm, calm, calming relaxed, very relaxed H appy happy joyful joy uplifting content

29

I felt that this worked and altered it to ‘Along the river ... and everything in between’.

This allowed me to combine many smaller sub-categories under this one bigger category.

C alming in the hear t

‘Calming in the heart’ is a code that was present in the first song, but captured well all the

codes of the third song: ‘love’, ‘calm’, ‘gently coax’, ‘daily routine’, ‘evening’, ‘being

tucked in bed’, and ‘holding’.

Song 3

Calming in the heart L ove love being cared for baby calm soft rocking Stor y holding flowers meadow story gently coax sad simplicity Or dinar y brief daily routine ordinary chores Nighttime kitchen evening being tucked in bed sleepy tired want to go to sleep someone - myself sleeping asleep sleep

30

M oving towar ds something...

Song 4 was said to have, and inspire, a great deal of movement, specifically dance.

According to the data it had elements of excitement, adventure, happiness, holding,

containing, and love, but also danger, strength and protection.

Song 4

Moving towards something...

H appy/E xcitement happy, happy

joy excitement, excited

fun adventure passion

encouragement starting something new

moving towards something

H olding/C omfor t comforted, comforting

containing held, holding

rocked safe

soothing love

Pr otection

dangerous, dangers protect, protecting

stronger mother world

groups of people mostly women

Other

african culture evening

31

B eing in the G ar den

In this category of Song 5, ‘Being in the garden’ feels like a dream or a story. There are

shapes and illusions, with a baby watching the sky. There are also waterfalls, streams,

and rivers or lakes. There is a feeling of calm and enlightenment.

F inding joy in daily life

In Song 5 there is also this category that describes the simple things people do in daily

life: eating, smiling, relaxing, being happy and celebrating.

Song 5

Being in the Garden T he G ar den story journey dream dangers garden illusion sky shapes possibilities plays magical clouds Mother watches cradle baby woman F lowing water falls waterfall water, water stream rain being near water river or lake flowing waterfalls niagara walking by a river or lake wanting to enjoy the outdoors spring butterfly

M ood languid

enlightenment calm

inclination to wish to view inward can concentrate on other things

better background music

Finding joy in daily life Daily life

finding joy in daily life celebration

eating joy, happy

smiling relaxed

not too passionate simple

spiritual people relaxing

B eing in a coffee shop with fr iends

32

This category speaks of being with friends, being happy and relaxed, feeling joy,

exhilaration and contentment.

F r om the Old M other L and

This is another category that has many elements of nature and the feeling that it is a story.

Earth, fire, water, wind, green glades, home, being on the family farm, and listening to

the mother tongue. In this last lullaby, the data show that it also encouraged sleep and

gave images of nighttime.

Song 6

Being in a coffee shop with friends C offee shop Talking in a coffee shop wanting to be with friends just enjoying life happy relaxed, relaxation calmness M ood/F eelings contentment exhilaration joy mood safe strong sweet

From the Old Mother land Stor y

animals baby, baby

family family farm

father Gaelic

green glades home, home

mother tongue story

daily routine solitary

protection sensation to pause to observe what is

happening (something very simple) directed

E lements of Natur e

bay earth

four elements field fire

nature water

waved wind, winds

Nighttime

asleep night

star, starry mid afternoon to early evening

sleeping

33

C H APT E R 4: W H AT T O DO W I T H I T

In this chapter I will attempt to answer my research questions by looking at the cultural

aspects and musical elements found in the 6 lullabies. I will also develop a dialogue

between the results and the literature review. I will continue with what the potential

implications for music therapy clinical practice are, using the information found

throughout this research.

I ntr oduction

4.1 E M OT I ONA L A SPE C T S A ND I M A G E R Y

Singing to babies and children by parents and other caregivers is prevalent across cultures

(Cass-Beggs, 1969; Trehub, Unyk, & Trainor, 193; Unyk, Trehub & Schellenberg, 1992).

Each culture has its own musical style. This section will look at the cultural aspects of

the lullabies, including the translated text and the elements prominent in the lullabies. In

this section I will also attempt to answer the following research questions: What

emotions and/or images are evoked when listening to lullabies from different cultures?

Are there any significant differences or similarities when adults from different cultural

backgrounds listen to lullabies from different cultures than their own?

As mentioned previously, the lullabies are from various cultures, as are the participants

who answered the research questionnaire.

Song 1 is an Arabic lullaby called Yala Tnam Rima, ‘Go to sleep Rima’. It is a well-

known lullaby according to the participant who is from a Middle Eastern background.

This participant also mentioned that they had never heard this version before, that they

34

only knew the verse. So although it was recognized as a lullaby that the participant’s

mother used to sing to them as a child, it was still a new experience to hear the different

sections of the lullaby. As this participant also could understand the language, they

experienced two different kinds of emotional reactions. The beginning of the lullaby

evoked happiness and reminded them of being with their family when they were a child.

During one of the verses, however, they felt a feeling of nervousness and worry, and had

an image of being kidnapped as the lullaby was singing about the baby being taken away

by Gypsies (you may refer back to p.9 for the translation of the lullaby). When the

chorus returned, ‘Go to sleep’, happiness and calm also returned for the participant. This

is an example of when the associations of the listener impact their emotions when

listening to previously heard music (Jusling & Sloboda, 2001). Another image

experienced during this lullaby was that of ‘Islamic cultured people praying’ which

suggests that the listener recognized the Middle Eastern feel of the music.

Song 2 is an African lullaby called Ikope Ye Tollo, meaning ‘The Birds are Sleeping’

from the country of Equatorial Guinea. Images of nature were strongly evoked from this

lullaby. While listening, one participant had an image of the Amazon natives. Although

the Amazon is a dense forest of South America, I would suggest that the lullaby reminded

the participant of the jungle, which is an association that I believe most people have with

Africa as well as South America, myself included. This belief is supported by the fact

that the words ‘jungle’, ‘rainforest’, ‘thick forest’, ‘lush forest’ as well as ‘African

woman’ were present in the Data Analysis Workshop. With this lullaby, the response of

emotions and images evoked were similar with all participants.

35

Song 3 is a Swedish lullaby called Videvisan which means ‘Whicker shrub’. It sings of

sleeping through winter and waking with the spring where it will grow and show it’s

colors (translation in booklet of Doudou: Le monde des berçeuses à capella). There were

no significant culturally related images evoked by this lullaby, but a great deal of gentle

emotions and feelings were found in the data: love, being cared for, holding, peaceful,

relaxing, calm. Many specific images of babies, mothers and sleep were present as well.

For example, ‘being tucked in bed’, ‘want to go to sleep’, ‘mother and baby going to

sleep’, ‘mother silhouetted against window singing to baby’. No significant differences

in images or emotions were observed in this lullaby.

Song 4, Duerme Negrito, means ‘Sleep little black one’. It is a fairly dark lullaby,

singing about the hardships of the mother’s work conditions and how she will bring him

all these good things for the baby if he sleeps. If the baby does not sleep however, a

white devil will come and eat its foot. This lullaby is originally a traditional Cuban song

that was later adapted and popularized by the Argentine folk singer and social activist

Atahualpa Yupanqui. The first part of the lullaby is like any other, promising sweet

things to encourage the child to sleep. The second part, however, reflects the conditions

endured by slaves for generations in parts of South America

(http://www.bellevuechamberchorus.net/Research/WorldMusic/Music/DuermeNegrito.ht

m). Another strong element of the song is that the singer is accompanied by a drum. The

drum evoked a great deal of images of dance, rhythm and people, as well as feelings of

excitement and passion. It also elicited feelings of danger, strength and protection. Just

like the words of the lullaby, the data show two distinct sides of the music: love and

safety versus danger.

36

Song 5 is a Japanese lullaby that means’ ‘Tokyo Lullaby’, Edo no Komori Uta. The two

singers are accompanied by a Chinese lap harp and background water sounds. Again, the

data does not show any culture-specific images or thoughts, but a great deal of nature and

water-related images.

Song 6 is a lullaby sung mostly in English, with the first half of the chorus sung in

Gaelic; from Nova-Scotia, the Cape Breton Lullaby. The data mention Gaelic and green

glades and is supported by the Data Analysis Workshop that speaks of the Moors of

Ireland and green grass. Once again, the image of nature is very present in the data,

perhaps because the words of the lullaby allude to it: driftwood, lochie, meadows, Mira’s

stream.

Even though all the lullabies were culturally different from one another, many of the

significant musical and emotional elements appeared in each lullaby. Melody, and the

perceived feelings and images of soft, calm, relax, holding, and rocking, all appear to be

key elements of a lullaby.

4.2 M USI C A L E L E M E NT S

When asked which song was preferred, the results were varied. Song 1 through 4, Yalla

tnam Rima, Ikope Ye Tollo, Videvisan, and Duerme Negrito, were deemed preferred.

Yalla Tnam Rima was preferred because it was calming and resting. According to the

data this lullaby ‘alerts the sadness’, ‘rests the soul’, ‘touches the inner feelings’ and

37

‘speaks to the heart’. Ikope Ye Tollo sounded fun and full of happiness, and Videvisan

sounded cute and nice. Duerme Negrito kept the listeners’ attention and was rhythmic.

Keep in mind that the listeners were not yet told that all of these songs were lullabies.

A similar situation occurred with the Data Analysis Workshop. All the songs were

preferred with the exception of song 4, Duerme Negrito. The word ‘calm’ is also

mentioned here, as well as ‘peaceful’, ‘relaxing’, ‘warmth’ and ‘love’. The musical

elements mentioned are also similar to what was found in the data: melody, contour,

colour, rise and fall (of phrases), rhythmical, and mode.

In the data, the least liked songs were numbers 6, Cape Breton Lullaby, and 3, Videvisan.

For Cape Breton Lullaby in particular, the data show that the listeners felt there was little

emotion from the singer, it was boring, it was difficult to imagine and did not attract

them. Videvisan lost the listeners’ attention and began to put them to sleep. Not knowing

that this is a lullaby, perhaps putting the listener to sleep is a good indication that

Videvisan is an effective lullaby.

In the Data Analysis Workshop, Cape Breton Lullaby was also among the least liked, as

well as E do No K omori Uta, because they were irritating and annoying, and they were

difficult to appreciate. The Duerme Negrito was the least liked because it did not sound

like a lullaby. It was felt that it was too busy and stimulating to be a lullaby. Going back

to the data, when participants were asked if they would consider any of these songs to be

lullabies, Duerme Negrito was not one of them. It was deemed too ‘up beat’ to be a

lullaby. However, according to the isoprinciple (Wigram , 2002), when singing a lullaby

38

to a baby, one must first match the baby’s emotional state and make that emotional

connection before changing the style of singing to a more calming and relaxing one

(Baker & Mackinlay, 2006). We could therefore consider Duerme Negrito as a lullaby

that could match a baby or child’s high energy or distress, and then would gradually

become less up beat, perhaps slowing down the beat and making the phrases a little more

round as the baby or child calms down and settles.

In answer to my first question, the findings of this research suggest that the most

important musical elements of a lullaby are: predictability, steady rhythm or pulse, simple

melodic pattern, fluidity of the melody, rise and fall of phrases, slower tempo and the

space in between the notes. Bargiel (2002) adds that repetition is also an important

element: “repetitions of refrains, of musical phrases, and notes” (p.7). Trehub and

Trainor (1998) state that the designation of the “lullaby in Western societies, privileges

certain sonorous patterns such as humming, syllables without signification,

onomatopoeia, the repetition of syllables, and the diminutives of words” (in Bargiel,

2002). Likewise, when selecting music for fragile, premature babies in the NICU,

Schwartz and Ritchie (1999) emphasize simplicity, gentle rhythms, flowing and lyrical

melodies, simple harmonies, and soft tone colours.

These musical elements are broad and can be easily adapted to any song. The elements

that are used as well as how they are used in each song appears to vary between each

culture. Cass-Beggs (1969) observed that lullabies from Central and South America have

a certain vitality and richness to their rhythms, as well as a passion that is not as

prominent in other lullabies. With Scandinavian lullabies, Norwegian in particular, there

39

is no sense of fear or anxiety present in these songs, only contentment and satisfaction.

So it is possible to sing a lullaby within any scale or mode and style, within a small or a

large melodic pattern, and with an even, steady beat or with a more powerful complicated

rhythm. It appears that the intention of singing the baby to sleep is often enough, as

adults seem to have a natural way of adapting their tone to meet the baby’s needs

(Trehub, 2001; Trehub, Unyk & Trainor, 1993).

4.3 C L I NI C A L A PPL I C A T I ONS OF L UL L A B I E S

Pr ematur e I nfants

As I have mentioned previously, my reasons for choosing lullabies as my research topic

is that I would like to specialize my practice in paediatrics in hospitals and clinical

settings. I would like to be able to work with young children and babies, and more

specifically with premature infants.

With the advancement of medical technologies, babies who are born premature can

survive at a very early gestational age. This initial survival, however, leads to immediate

and future physiological and psychological difficulties due to the noisy and invasive

hospital environment, as well as the lack of physical and emotional contact with the

mother (Nöcker-Ribaupierre, 1999; Stnadley, 2003). Music therapy with this population,

when used carefully and through close monitoring, can be very beneficial in

counteracting the effects of stress and agitation caused by the high and invasive noise

levels of the NICU (neonatal intensive care unit). I say “used carefully” because too

much musical stimulation when the infant is not yet ready can also be detrimental

(Standley, 2003; Cassidy & Standley, 1995). Having a large repertoire of lullabies, and

40

being informed about their musical and emotional qualities, will allow me to select

appropriate lullabies for the individual babies.

As I will be working in a culturally diverse environment, understanding the messages of

the music and the significance these may have, as well as what cultural elements may be

present, will help me in being more culturally aware of the music I select for patients.

Being culturally aware is important when we live in a country that has so many

wonderfully diverse cultures. This research as well as Stige’s work (2002 ) on cultural

aspects of music therapy, has inspired me to look at my own culture and encourages me

to be culturally aware of those I work with.

F or the M other s

As the research results and literature suggest, listeners have their own preferences and

associations to music. This is also true of babies and their mothers. (Baker & Mackinlay,

2006). Nöcker-Ribaupierre (1999) observed that the relationship between a mother and

her infant can become almost non-existent when the infant is born premature and

hospitalized for a long period of time. The mother often experiences anxiety, guilt and

fear about her child’s predicament. Using informed lullabies with the mother may

facilitate the continuation of this relationship, allowing an emotional connection between

the two. It is said that lullabies are used not only to calm the baby, but the mother as well

(Trehub, Unyk & Trainor, 1993). While still communicating and conveying her

emotional state, the mother can diminish her anxiety and fear through lullaby singing.

41

This also allows her to relax and be better able to connect with her baby, which in turn

calms and sooths the infant. Stern (1995) and Trevarthen (2010) have written extensively

on the importance of the mother-child bond to both the child and the mother. This bond

develops through many modes of communication including speech, gestural, emotional

and also musical communication.

In the context of music therapy and this research, I can find out more about a mother’s

preferred use of music and facilitate the selection of lullabies for her to sing to her baby.

Baker and Mackinlay (2006) noticed that first-time mothers often did not know more

than 4-5 lullabies, nor did they sing to their babies prior to participating in the study.

Once the emotional and developmental value of singing and lullabies was explained to

them, they became more willing and in turn more comfortable singing to their babies.

Being better informed about the qualities and cultural nature of different lullabies will

allow me work with mothers of premature infants and help them in their lullaby

selections, as well as assist them in becoming more comfortable singing to their baby.

In a similar program, Kaplan (2010), created lullaby groups with at-risk expectant and

parenting teens and adults, where the properties and characteristics of lullabies were

defined. The group learned a variety of lullabies and practiced them in the group with

their babies. They also learned to personalize the songs, how to identify calming music

for their babies as well as what type of activities to use while singing lullabies. The

importance of lullabies in facilitating a relationship between mother and child is even

more pronounced when the mother suffers from a mental illness. Babies of mothers with

mental illnesses often show signs of chronic stress, have difficulty meeting cognitive and

42

physical milestones of infancy, and both mother and baby experience insecure attachment

(Field, 1998; Murray, 1992; Lyons-Ruth, Connell et al, 1990; Lyons-Ruth, Zoll et al,

1986; Goodman et al, 1993; Rosenblum et al, 1997; Seifer & Dickstein, 2000; Teti et al,

1995; in Kaplan, 2010).

Another area of music therapy work being developed is with expectant mothers to

facilitate the child birthing process (Browning, 2001; Allison, 2006). In Allison’s study,

music was selected approximately 32 weeks into the pregnancy so as to facilitate the

integration and assimilation of the music in connection with different tasks. For example,

stronger rhythmic music to play during house work that would be used during the

contractions; calming, relaxing music for the periods of rest in between the contractions.

In Browning’s study, the study group received music therapy prior to and during labour,

while the control group did not. Using music during the child birthing process showed

that the mothers had a greater tolerance for the pain, experienced more personal control

and were able to relax faster, than mothers who did not have music during childbirth. In

this context it could also be suggested that the mother write or adapt a song and create it

into a lullaby or welcome song for their new baby.

As I will be working with culturally diverse populations, being aware of the cultural

aspects, content and associations of various lullabies will be important when suggesting

this type of music to mothers and parents.

Paediatr ic Pain

43

Another area of work in a hospital setting is pain and stress management. With children

this can be more difficult as they do not often have many tools to deal with pain and the

stress of hospitalization. Music therapy can distract children from their immediate pain

and discomfort, bringing their attention elsewhere and allowing their bodies and minds to

relax. Although lullabies are initially sung to babies, they can still be very useful to

younger and older children, especially if specific lullabies were used by their parents at

home or at a younger age. Knowing what the basic elements of a lullaby are, I can adapt

almost any song that a parent or child wants into a lullaby. Gradually slowing the pulse,

softening the melodic line, or perhaps simply repeating the chorus of a popular song until

the desired calming effect is observed, are all effective methods of adapting a regular

song into a lullaby.

Stress and anxiety are big factors in paediatric pain, for the patient and the parents, but

for the treatment team as well. Working with the parents and child, I could encourage

them to sing a lullaby that they all know, or learn a new lullaby together. Lullabies can

calm the singer as well as the listener (Baker & Mackinlay, 2006; Kaplan, 2010). In a

tense situation such as when a child is receiving a painful procedure or treatment, singing

a lullaby together, or having the parents sing to their child, could release some of that

tension, put everyone a little bit more at ease, and decrease not only the child and

family’s anxiety, but the treatment team as well.

There is also the possibility of working with the patient and family in writing their own

song for coping with the hospitalization and the various treatment procedures. The child

can express his or her feelings about the situation, and use the song as a tool to deal with

the pain and anxiety by singing it themselves, or by having the music therapist or a parent

44

sing it for them. Being able to sing their own song themselves could give patients an

added sense of control over the situation. The song could be used to indicate when the

patient is ready to receive the treatment, by having the team wait until the song has been

sung at least once. The patient could also indicate to the team or music therapist when

the procedure is becoming too difficult, by singing louder or softer. These indications

would be discussed prior to the procedure in order for everyone to understand the signals,

should they present themselves. These can be used as tools to alleviate anxiety during

stressful moments of the patient’s hospitalization.

The emotions that are evoked by music are often associated to memories of our past

(Juslin & Sloboda, 2001; Lutz, 2008). Knowing about the music previously listened to

by our patients, or music that was played in the home, will help us select appropriate

music during periods of stress and pain. However, one should stay aware of the risk that

listening to preferred music during stressful or painful moments might create new

associations to the music for the patient, such as associations of pain and tension.

Preferred music may be comforting and soothing for patients, but they may no longer be

able to listen to that music once they return home. An alternative could be to select

music that is similar in style, but not the same specific bands or songs. It can all become

very tricky. Personally, I believe that whatever appears to help the patient during

moments of anxiety and pain should be further explored and used, whether it’s a play

song, a rock song or a lullaby.

L ive ver sus R ecor ded L ullabies

45

It has been observed that babies have a system of preferences when it comes to the voice

and to singing. First, babies generally prefer a female voice over a male voice. Second,

babies will always pay more attention to their mother’s voice then that of any other

female voice (Rock, Trainor & Addison, 1999; Trehub, 2001). Third, a baby’s attention

will remain fixed on the mother longer if she is singing rather than speaking. Lastly,

baby’s attention will be sustained the longest when his mother’s singing is directed at him

(Tafuri, 2008). It is noticed that with infant directed singing, the singer’s voice has a

deeper emotional quality, and allows the singer to emotionally connect with the baby

(Rock, Trainor & Addison, 1999; Tafuri, 2008).

In a music therapy context, this information is important when developing a program for

hospitalized infants and babies as they are placed in an unnatural environment. When

deciding on appropriate interventions and music, live music is always preferred. It

allows for a better adaptation to the child’s immediate state, and the dynamics and tone of

the music can be altered to follow the changing behaviour of the baby. I can share this

information with the parents and educate them, if need be, on how to be aware of their

baby’s reactions and how to adapt her singing to meet his needs. When the parents or

music therapist cannot be present, making a recording of the mother singing to her baby

would be a good alternative to other lullaby recordings (Trehub, 2001).

When deciding on using lullaby CDs, the selection will be important. I would be

referring back to the results found in the data. Choosing lullabies that have simple

harmonies, that have a slower tempo, relatively high pitch, and that have melodic

contours would be best. According to the data, it would also be important for the

recordings to have a high emotional quality that can be heard from the singer. For

46

example, even though Cape Breton Lullaby was musically pleasing, it was deemed

lacking in emotion, and may therefore not be an appropriate choice.

Another thought to keep in mind when selecting lullaby CDs is to choose lullabies from

various cultures. The pitch contours and prosodic patterns appear to be similar across

cultures. It appears that infants respond to lullabies of any culture, as emotions are

present and identifiable in all of them (Rock, Trainor & Addison, 1999). Choosing

lullabies from a variety of culture not only allows music therapists to build a large

selection of lullabies, but also promotes learning music from various cultures in general.

Bringing different kinds of music into an environment that perhaps has not been exposed

to a great deal of musical diversity can be interesting, stimulating, and enriching for

clients.

There are many options and opportunities to use lullabies in music therapy, for example:

with infants and babies in the NICU, with mothers who have babies and who have less

opportunity to emotionally bond with their child, or with mothers who need to learn to

control their own anxiety in a constructive way. Music therapy can also be helpful for

older children, who may need the familiar, soothing effects of lullabies to help them get

through the pain and anxiety of hospitalization and various treatments. The lullaby can

be used in various situations, usually with the objective of reducing anxiety, as well as

calming and relaxing the listener and/or the singer.

L ullabies in Palliative C ar e

As lullabies are sung at the beginning of life, would it not also benefit the end of life?

Loewy (2005) describes lullabies as being a wonderful tool in helping patients transition

47

toward the end of life. She explains that the theme messages in lullabies are those of

safety and holding. End of life is often filled with fear, anxiety, and anger for both the

patient and for the family. Singing a favourite or childhood lullaby of the patient could

allow them to ‘let go’ and be held by the music, allowing the transition from life to death

to be made more peacefully. O’Callaghan (2008) has also looked at combining lullabies

and laments, ‘lullament’, to sooth patients in palliative care and their families, and

facilitate the transition from life to physical death.

48

C H APT E R 5: H OW I T E NDS

The focus of this research was on the emotions and images evoked when listening to

lullabies from various cultures. This allowed me to determine if there were any

prominent emotional elements that appeared in the different lullabies as well as what

musical elements may be contributing to these feelings being evoked. I also interested in

discovering if there were any significant differences or similarities in the musical and

emotional elements when the lullabies from different cultures were played for listeners

who were also from different cultures.

The initial stage of finding lullabies was unexpectedly quite difficult. There were few

lullabies that fit the criteria of what I wanted to research: vocal only lullabies from

various cultures. Vocal only, because I chose to recreate as close as possible the

experience of when a mother sings to her baby. When mothers sing their babies to sleep,

they rarely have an instrumental accompaniment in the room with them.

Once the 6 lullabies were chosen, I began with my analysis using an adapted version of

Ferrara’s musical analysis, and then proceeded to recruit participants. This also proved

somewhat difficult as there were not initially any responses. In the end, I was able to

recruit 3 participants, whos information was invaluable to this research and gave me

insights into the selected lullabies and the results that emerged from the research.

The results showed that there was a general consensus in how the lullabies were

perceived by the listeners. As mentioned earlier, the data show that the key elements that

appear to make up a lullaby is melody, phrases, soft, calm, relax, holding, and rocking.

49

All very general terms that can be achieved through various tonalities, modes, rhythmic

patterns and tones, It could be suggested that no matter the culture, the lullaby is at the

same time unique and universal. Adults and babies can listen to lullabies from any

culture and recognize them for what they are (Trehub, Unyk & Trainor, 1993; Rock,

Trainor & Addison, 1999). There are always exceptions, of course. When asked to

consider which songs they had heard could be lullabies, the participants found that all of

them could be lullabies with the exception of lullaby number 4, Duerme Negrito, because

of its faster rhythm and stimulating middle section.

Through this research, I have learned that there is not simply one way to musically define

a lullaby. Across cultures, lullabies appear to serve one purpose: it is a song that is sung

or played to babies and young children with the objective of calming, soothing, and

lulling them to sleep. How it is done musically is most often through a slower, steady

tempo with a repetitive melody and simple rhythm. But there are always exceptions to the

rule.

In music therapy, we can use the qualities of lullabies with specific therapeutic goals in

mind. It can be used to relax, calm and sooth younger patients when they are upset or

uncomfortable. It can assist them in dealing with the pain and anxiety of hospitalization,

and the painful treatments and procedures associated with it. Lullabies can be used for

parents as well, gibing them an active role during their children’s hospitalization and

treatments. It can allow them to feel some sense of control in comforting their children

by singing to them through difficult times. Singing lullabies may help the parents to

relax and decrease their own anxiety over the situation.

50

I enjoyed listening to the many different and interesting lullabies. It allowed me to

discover new lullabies that I can use in my clinical practice, and perhaps with my own

family. I also learned about music from various cultures, and what makes some cultures’

music different from others.

I recognize that this is a relatively small research. I hope that this project will be a start

for future research on multicultural lullabies. A possible path would playing various

lullabies from different cultures for healthy infants and babies to observe their reactions.

Afterwards, based on those results, playing those same lullabies for at risk babies or

infants in a hospital environment to investigate if their reactions are similar and if they

would be helpful.

For the near future, I think I would like to remain focused on pediatrics, more particularly

in pain and anxiety management and reduction, then perhaps moving on to parent anxiety

management and support groups.

Even though lullabies have been around for a long time, possibly as long as mothers have

been having children, and that it appears to be a natural thing that people o with their

children, I feel that it is still worth investigating in to the possible therapeutic qualities of

lullabies. It also appears that recorded music is taking precedence over singing to our

children ourselves. When people stop singing, even in the privacy of their own homes,

something is lost. By looking into and doing more research about lullabies, and

specifically multicultural lullabies, I hope that it will encourage more people to learn and

51

use them, and allow us to keep building on our traditional lullabies as well as adding

culturally various ones to our musical libraries.

52

R E F E R E NC E S

Ahonen, H. (2009). Qualitative research. PowerPoint Presentation presented to MU606 Qualitative Research Course at Wilfrid Laurier University, Waterloo, ON. Slides in possession of Tanya Lavoie. Aldridge, G., and Aldridge D. (2008). Melody in Music Therapy: A therapeutic narrative analysis. Philadelphia: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. Allison, D. (2006). Music Therapy at Childbirth. In Bruscia, K. E. (Ed.) Case Studies in Music Therapy. Gilsum, NH: Barcelona Publishers. Baker, F., and Mackinlay, E. (2006). Sing, sooth and sleep: A lullaby education programme for first-time mothers. British Journal of Music E ducation, 23:2, pp. 147-160. Bargiel, M. (2002). Lullabies and Play songs: Theroretical considerations for an early attachment music therapy intervention through parental singing for develpmentally at-risk infants. Canadian Journal of Music Therapy Vol. IX, no, 1. Browning, C. A. (2001). Music Therapy in childbirth: Research in practice. Music Therapy perspectives. Vol. 19, no. 2, pp. 74-81. Cass-Beggs, B., and Cass-Beggs, M. (Eds), (1969). F olk Lullabies. New York, NY: Oak Publications. Cassidy, J. W., and Standley, J. (1995). The effect of music listening on physiological responses of premature infants in the NICU. Journal of Music Therapy 32:4, pp. 180-192. Colaizzi, P. F. (1978). Psychological research as the phenomenologist views it. In R. S. Valle and M. King. (Eds), E xistential-phenomenological alternatives for psychology, pp. 48-71. New York: Oxford University Press. Duerme Negrito lullaby information and translation. Bellevue Chamber Chorus. http://www.bellevuechamberchorus.net/Research/WorldMusic/Music/DuermeNegrito.htm. Retrieved on February 20th, 2010. Definition of Lullaby. Oxford Music Online. http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com:80/subscriber/article/grove/music/17160. Retrieved on January 21st, 2010. E do No K omori Uta lullaby liberal translation, Naoko Matsumura McKee, April 25th, 2010. Ferrara, L. (1984). Phenomenology as a tool for musical analysis. Musical Quarterly, vol. 70, pp. 355-373.

53

Ferrara, L. (1991). Philosophy and the analysis of music: Bridges to musical sound, form, and reference. Contributions to the study of music and dance. vol. xxii, pp. 360. Forinash, M., & Gonzalez, D. (1989). A phenomenological perspective of music therapy. Music Therapy, 8, 35-46. Forinash, M., and Grocke, D. (2005). Phenomenological Inquiry. In Wheeler, B. (Ed) Music Therapy Research, second edition. Gilsum, NH: Barcelona Publishers. Giorgi, A, (1975). Convergence and divergence of qualitative and quantitative methods in psychology. In A. Giorgi, C. T. Fisher, and E. L. Murray (Eds), Duquesne studies in phenomenological psychology. Vol. 2, pp. 72-79. Pittsburgh, PA: Duquesne University Press. Hailstone, J. C., Omar, R., Henly, S. M. D., Frost, C., Kenward, M. G., & Warren, J. D. (2009). It’s not what you play, it’s how you play it: Timbre affects perception of emotion in music. The Quarterly Journal of E xperimental Psychology. 62: 11, pp. 2141-2155. Juslin, P. N., and Sloboda, J. A. (2001). Music and emotion: theory and research. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Kaplan, R., S. (2010). Lullaby 101: A program for At-Risk Expectant and Parenting Teens and Adults. Presentation presented at Canadian Association for music Therapy Conference, in Halifax Nova Scotia. Handout in possession of Tanya Lavoie. Loewy, J. V. (2005). The Use of Lullabies as a Transient Motif in Ending Life. In C. Dileo & J. V. Loewy (Eds.). Music Therapy at the End of Life. pp. 141-148. Lutz, J. (2008). Music, memory and emotion. Journal of biology, vol. 7(6):21. Nöcker-Ribaupierre, M. (1999). Premature birth and music therapy. In T. Wigram & J. De Backer (Eds.). Clinical applications of music therapy in developmental disability, paediatrics and neurology. pp. 47-65. Nordoff, P., and Robbins, C. (2007). Creative Music Therapy: A Guide to Clinical Musicianship. Gilsum, NH: Barcelona Publishers. O’Callaghan, C. (2008). Lullament: Lullaby and Lament Therapeutic Qualities Actualized through Music Therapy. American Journal of Hospice & Palliatice Medicine, vol. 25(2), pp. 93-99. Pierce, C.S. (1965). Collected Papers of C.S. Pierce, C. Hartshorne & P. Weiss (Eds.). Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press. Rock, A. M. L., Trainor L. J., Addison, T. L. (1999). Distinctive messages in Infant Directed Lullabies and Play Songs. Develpmental Psychology Vol. 35:2, pp. 527-534

54

Ruud, E. (2005). Philosophy and theory of science. In B.L. Wheeler (Ed.), Music therapy research (2nd ed.) (pp. 33-44). Gilsum, NH: Barcelona Publishers. Schwartz, F., and Ritchie, R. (1999). Music listening in neonatal intensive care units. In C. Dileo (Ed.), Music therapy and medicine: Theoretical and clinical applications. Silver Spring, MD: American Music Therapy Association, Inc., pp. 13-22. Smeijster, H. (1997). Multiple Perspectives: A Guide to Qualitative Research in Music Therapy. Gilsum, NH: Barcelona Publishers.

Standley, J. M. (2003). Music therapy with premature infants: Research and developmental interventions. Silver Spring, MD: The American Music Therapy Association.

Stern, D. N. (1985). The interpersonal World of the Infant: A View from Psychoanalysis and Development. New York: BasicBooks. Stern, D. N. (1990). Diary of a Baby. New York: BasicBooks. Stern, D. N. (1995). The Motherhood Constellation: A unified view of parent-infant psychotherapy. New York: BasicBooks. Stige, B. (2002). Culture-Centered Music Therapy. Gilsum, NH: Barcelona Publishers. Tafuri, J. (2008). Infant Musicality : New research for educators and parents. Trans. Surrey: Ashgate Publishing Limited. Titon, J. T., and Slobin, M. (2002). The Music-Culture as a World of Music. In Titon, J. T. (Ed): Worlds of Music: An Introduction to the Music of the World’ s Peoples. Boston, MA: Thomas Shirmer. Trehub, S. E. (2001). Musical Predisposition in Infancy. Annals New York Academy of Sciences. Vol. 930:0, pp. 1-16. Trehub, S. E., Unyk, A. M., and Trainor, L. J. (1993). Adults Identify Infant-Directed Music Across Cultures. Infant behavior and development, vol, 16, pp. 193-211. Trehub, S. E., Unyk, A. M., and Trainor, L. J. (1993). Maternal singing in cross-cultural perspective. Infant behavior and development, vol, 16, pp. 285-295. Trehub, S. E. & Trainor, L. (1998). Singing to Infants: Lullabies and Play. In Rovee-Collier, C., Lipsitt, L. P. & Hayne H. (Eds.) Advances in Infancy Research: Vol. 12 (pp. 43-77). Standford, CT: Ablex Publishing.

55

Trevarthen, C. (1979). Communication and cooperation in early infancy. A description of primary intersubjectivity. In M. Bullowa (Ed.), Before Speech. The Beginning of Human Communication. London: Cambrige University Press. Trevarthen, C., Malloch, S. (2010). Communicative Musicality: E xploring the basis of Human Companionship. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Unyk, A. M., Trehub, S. E., Trainor, L. J., and Shellenberg, G. (1992). Lullabies and Simplicity: A Cross-Cultural Perspective. Psychology of Music, 20. pp. 15-28. van Kaam, A. L. (1959). Phenomenal analysis: Exemplified by a study of the experience of “really feeling understood.” Journal of Individual Psychology 15(1), pp. 62-72. van Manen, M. (1990). Researching lived experience: Human science for an action sensitive pedagogy. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. Wheeler, B. (Ed.) (2005). Music Therapy Research, second edition. Gilsum, NH: Barcelona Publishers. Wigram, T., Bonde, L. O. and Pederson, I. N. (2002). A comprehensive guide to music therapy. London: Jessica Kingsley. Zentner, M., Grandjean, D., and Scherer, K. R. (2008). Emotions Evoked by the Sound of Music: Characterisation, Classification and Measurement. E motion, Vol. 8(4), pp. 494-521.

56

Discogr aphy Le monde en berçeuses Putumayo Presents - African Dreamland Doudou: Le monde des berçeuses à capella, Vol. 1 48 Berçeuses du Monde

57

A PPE NDI C E S

A PPE NDI X A - E thical R eview A ppr oval L etter

58

A PPE NDI X B - C onsent F or m

WILFRID LAURIER UNIVERSITY INFORMED CONSENT STATEMENT

You are invited to participate in a research study. The purpose of this study is to discover if and how cultural elements influence/vary the emotions and images evoked in music from different cultures? The researcher is Tanya Lavoie, a Master’s of Music Therapy Candidate at Wilfrid Laurier University. The research supervisor is Dr. Heidi Ahonen, professor in the music therapy department, (519) 884-0710 ext. 2431, hahonen@wlu.ca,

Information

The purpose of this research is to determine if different emotions and images are evoked when listening to music from different cultural backgrounds. Because this research project is looking at culturally diverse music, the participants would also be culturally diverse. Preferably, the participants would come from strong cultural backgrounds. Selection will be based on cultural diversity and the number of participants interested in this research. Researcher will select 6-7 participants, 1 participant per culture group (eg, asian, north-european, African, middle-eastern, north-american, south-american, european). The amount of time required of the participant will be between 45 minutes to an hour. Participants will be asked to listen to 6 pieces of music and write down the emotions, images and/or sensations evoked after each piece. At the end of the listening, participants will be asked to identify which piece they favoured and attempt to explain why.

The participants will have to come to WLU. Those with cars may have to pay for parking. The participants may fall asleep during listening. The participants may also experience some strong emotional responses during the listening.

R is ks

Research will ensure that the participant is comfortable prior to starting the listening and throughout the listening process. The lullabies played will be short, and discussions will occur in between each lullaby. Water and light food will be provided during the listening. Name and location of counselling services in the area will be provided.

The participants will experience music from other cultures. The sharing of emotions, images and sensations will help researcher better understand possible elements in the pieces of music.

B enefits

C onfidentiality

Name, gender, age and religious background will not be used in the research report and findings. Because of the nature of the research, the general cultural background of the participant will be identified. The listening will take place in a closed room at WLU. Researcher will be the only one with identifying information of the participant and this information will be kept in the researchers personal computer, which is password protected. This information will be destroyed at the end of the study in September 2010.

59

The research will be presented during an oral defence. The research may also be presented at music therapy conferences and workshops. The researcher may use the participant’s responses in the study, as well as quotes acquired during the discussions. The participant’s responses to the listening will be video recorded and transcribed by the researcher. No video or audio excerpts of the participants will be used in the presentation of the research,

C ontact

Participants are invited to ask the researcher questions about the study, the procedures and their rights, prior, during and after the listening and discussions. The researcher can be contacted by telephone at (519) 616-9817. If the participant feels that their rights were not met, or if they experience any adverse effects during the listening and discussions, they must contact the investigator and Research Office immediately, (519) 884-9170 ext. 3131. The Research Ethics Board at Wilfrid Laurier University has reviewed and approved this project. If you feel you have not been treated according to the descriptions in this information letter, or your rights as a participant in research have been violated during the course of this project, you may contact Dr. Robert Basso, Chair, University Research Ethics Board, Wilfrid Laurier University, (519) 884-1970 ext. 5225, or rbasso@wlu.ca.

P artic ipation

Participation in this study is voluntary. Participants can refuse to participate or discontinue participation without any penalty or loss of benefit to which they are otherwise entitled. If participants decide to withdraw from the study, all the data collected will be destroyed and not used for the research. Participants also have the right to refuse to answer any questions or participate in any activity.

F eedback and P ublication

This research is for a Major Research Paper, as part of the Master’s of Music Therapy program. The research will be presented in September 2010 for an oral defence involving 3 WLU professors and any audience members who wish to attend. Participants are welcomed to be present at the oral defence. Once completed, the research will also be put on the LCMTR web site. The research could also be published if accepted by a music therapy journal.

C ons ent

I have read and understood the above information, acknowledge having received a copy of this form, and agree to participate in the study.

Participant’s signature _________________________________ Date______________ Researcher’s signature_________________________________ Date______________

60

AP P E NDIX C -P artic ipant Ques tionnaire

How did it make you feel?

First piece

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

Did you have any images? What were they?

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

Did you experience any physical sensations? What were they?

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

61

After having listened to all the pieces -

Which piece did you prefer, and why?

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

Which piece did you like the least, and why?

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

Would you consider any of these pieces as lullabies?

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

62

What is your reaction in knowing that all of these pieces are lullabies?

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

A PPE NDI X D - Data A nalysis W or kshop Questionnair e

63

How did it make you feel?

First piece

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

Did you have any images? What were they?

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

Did you experience any physical sensations? What were they?

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

What clinical meaningful aspects did you hear in the music?

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

After listening to all the pieces -

Which piece did you prefer?

64

Which piece did you least like?

What musical and emotional elements contributed to that preference?

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

A PPE NDI X E - Data A nalysis W or kshop L istening R esponses

Song 1

65

C linical Aspects

M usical E lements acapella clean rhythm diversity descending line frequency form harmony held notes human voice melody melody was grounded musical contrast predictability range of voice repetition repetitive rests rhythmic consonants rhythms slides ~ glissandos structure tonic volume voice E motions balance calming containing holding relatable safe understandable Other aesthetically pleasing beautiful voice brought me inward simplicity

E motions

C alming/C omfor t Calming Comforted Grounded Hugged Peaceful Relaxed Soothing quality R eflective Brought me inward Internal Reflective Wondering E motions Interested Liked it in general Lonely Longing Sad Wanting Yearning Adventurous Engaged mesmerizing C ultur e Foreign Middle eastern Arabic feel Other Deep voice Not being able to predict surrounded

I mages

W oman 30 years old Brown skin Longer black curly hair Old in spirit Woman Woman singing Young of face Singing - western clothes - Night time Creek of light Dark Dark night Darkness Evening Moon Stars L andscapes Arabic landscape Cave Desert Middle East Sand Sky Summer Sun Waves Wind Blurry Echoey place Empty concert hall Pleasant Round vision

Physical Sensations

R elaxed Body relaxation Gentle and warm breeze Slowly turning wind Warmth feeling Sadness Longing Nostalgia Other Resonance in my heart – chest Anxious Chest cavity was a hollow steel vessel Eye twitched

66

Song 2

C linical Aspects

M usical E lements -Accapella -melodic line -musical breaks -musical space -phrasing -Range of melody -repeated -repetition -rise and fall -Same note -space -tone -tonic E motions -calming -comfort -containing -curiosity -grounded -sense of momentum -validating Other -movement -clarity -constant -beautiful voice

E motions

B ody -dance -dance-like -flowing rhythm throughout my body -relaxed Soothing -“I know you're hurting, but it will be ok soon” -calm

Other -cheerful -curious -Flat -foreign sounding -happy -introverted -joyful -like it -internal -interested

I mages

Natur e -bird sounds -birds chirping -butterflies flying and playing -Jungle -wild but safe jungle -water dripping off the leaves -middle of a rainforest -middle of a thick forest -open meadows -summer sun -sun shone through a waterfall -surrounded by lush forest -trees F igur e -woman singing -wearing an orange robe -african woman -arms outstretched Other -warmer country -african woman -beautiful place -interpretive ~ modern dance

Physical Sensations

M ovement -dance -rhythmic body movement Other -smile -strained in back of my throat

67

Song 3

C linical Aspects

M usical elements clear melody repeated easy to remember form melody M emor able Catchy Clarity Clear Continuous Memorable Simple Simplicity Other Western sounding Potential for improvisation

E motions

C alm Calm Comfortable Familiar Peaceful Relaxing Simple Soothed H appy Happy Happier Positive Almost energetic Loved Other Hopeful Irritated Drowsy Cared

I mages

B aby Baby’s eyes fight to stay open and on mother’s face Mother and baby going to sleep Mother silhouetted against window singing to baby Pushing a child slowly and gently on a swing Rocking Rocking cradle W oman Woman singing in a field of yellow flowers (in the middle of the field) A trickster female clown The person singing was smiling and maybe tapping Darkened room

Physical Sensations

Contraction Sleepy Tensing

68

Song 4

69

C linical Aspects

M usical elements ABA form clean tempo clear return to ~A~ theme constancy of drum beat grounds contrasting sections decrescendo downbeat pulses drum roll drumming as the foundation dynamic change interesting vocal techniques rhythm rhythmic rhythmic entrainment sustaining notes varying textures constant drive excitement grabbed my attention holding by returning to the familiar stimulating articulate in words cultural meaning of song grounding motivation predicting transitionary feature

E motions

Angry Annoyed Distracted Irritated Irritating Less authentic Too strong Troubling Comforting Intrigued Positive Energized Excited Fun Like moving Liked the beat Real Restless Stimulating Strong Wake up

I mages

Natur e Drum in Columbian forest indigenous culture Jungle G r oups/People People sitting around a fire at night playing drums and singing Person singing Female dancers moving-dancing with small movements Moving Dancing Drumming W oman The singer The woman singing dancing next to the drum player Twirling round in circles 30 years old A long red dress that flares out C ontinent Africa South American cultural drumming ceremony Symbolism Drum beat was symbolic of my heart beating Intricate rhythms of the earth and entire universe

Physical Sensations

M ove Moving my body Wanted to move-dance Stimulating Clenching jaw Dizzy My heart beat

70

Song 5

71

M usical elements C linical Aspects

limited accompaniment long vowels melodic line melody Pentatonic phrases repetitiveness rise and fall slow slow pace E motions calming comforting happy interesting relaxing Qualities Authentic Beautiful Momentum Not predictable Pure Simple Echoed Opportunity for improvisation

C alm/R elaxed E motions

Calm Calming Peaceful Relaxed Relaxing Satisfied Soothing Sway like Cheesy Distracted Insincere Lonely Nostalgic Normal Happy Wanted to laugh Adventurous Anticipatory Curious Instrument Rain sounds

J apan I mages

Ancient Japan Boy in Kimono with a Japanese haircut Geisha Japanese landscape Japanese 3 year old Japanese garden Nap in the Tatami room Stone, moss, shishiodoshi Sounds Grandmother singing Harp of heaven Sound of money clinking Stringed instrument accompanying herself Singer Lonely female singer Old Asian grandma Tapping boy’s stomach as he falls asleep Woman sitting Seasons Changing seasons Fall-Spring-Summer Natur e Birds soaring Clear river Nature Water Waterfall Wooden bamboo water wheel Atmospher e Ambient Beautiful place Calm day Dark Lit stage Restaurant Other Graceful Lying down No blankets

T ension Physical Sensations

Tight stomach Tightness in chest Almost fell asleep Laughter Smiling Supported Sustaining Sparseness of accompaniment Voice stands out

72

Song 6

C linical Aspects

M usical elements understand the lyrics colours lyrics melody Mode passing tones pop song structure unsteady rhythm clear form E motions feelings soothing Place feels like the coast

E motions

Not liked Criticizing Did not enjoy Distracted Irritated C alm/R elaxed Calming Relaxed Comforted Soothed Like going home Refreshing Liked it Nice Searching Yearning

I mages

L andscape By the cliff Cliffs Fields Green grass Huge rocks Ireland Ocean Moor of Ireland Sea Seashore Stony walls The coast Natur e Birds Enjoying the nature Gentle waves Water Waves Wind blowing Stars just coming out Sunset Summer W oman Celtic long haired blond harp player Irish-Caucasian woman singing Young female Difficulties of her real external life situation Young woman trying to escape Creating a fantasy Buckles Straight jacket

Physical Sensations

H ear ing Didn’t listen to the words Skin Feeling a cooler, evening breeze

73

L east L iked

Number s 4th (5; least lullaby-like) 5th (2) 6th (2) annoying cheese fake irritating mocking stimulating too busy un-authentic instr umentation harp rain stick cartoon-like difficult to appreciate laugh less clear form

Pr efer r ed

Number 1 2 (2) 3 (3) 5 (2) 6 (2) Qualities Aesthetics Beautiful clear voice Clear Committed voice Gentle Interesting Fell in sleep M usical qualities Contour Colours Ends phrases Fast Form Melody Mode Musical landscapes Not much vibrato Predictability Regularity Rhythmical Rise and fall Slowing Style Tempo

F eelings behind the music Calm Comfortable Connection Emotions Energetic Fulfilling Hope Love Peaceful Positive feeling Relaxing Strong Warmth Bird sounds Culture Dance like Identified Images Language People

74