Innovation Sources of Economies in Eastern Asia

PRACE NAUKOWE Uniwersytetu Ekonomicznego we WrocławiuRESEARCH PAPERS of Wrocław University of Economics

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Contents

Introduction ..................................................................................................... 9

Part 1. International trade as a factor of innovation in Asian economies

Jerzy Dudziński, Jarosław Narękiewicz, Iwona Wasiak: PricemovementsintheinternationaltradeandAsiandevelopingcountries’exports........... 13

Guenter Heiduk: Is innovation-based competitiveness in trade crisis-resistant?ThecaseofChina....................................................................... 23

Bartosz Michalski: Technological intensity of the international trade. Thecaseofthesecond-tierAsianTigers.................................................... 36

Paweł Pasierbiak: TechnologicalintensityofJapanesemerchandisetrade.... 47Ewa Mińska-Struzik: Learningbyexportingasasourceof innovation in

Asiancompanies......................................................................................... 59

Part 2. Foreign direct investment as a source of innovation in Asian economies

Magdalena Kinga Stawicka: Economic and Technological DevelopmentZones(ETDZ)asaplaceofFDIlocationinChina.................................... 75

Maciej Żmuda: The determinants of Chinese outward foreign directinvestmenttodevelopingcountries............................................................ 86

Tadeusz Sporek: Foreign direct investment in Nepal. Strategy andpromotion.................................................................................................... 98

Aleksandra Kuźmińska-Haberla: Promotionofforeigndirectinvestment.ExamplesfromtheAsia-Pacificregion...................................................... 109

Part 3. Innovativeness of network in Eastern Asia

Sebastian Bobowski, Marcin Haberla: Networkedclusters in thecontext ofknowledge-seekingstrategyofinternationalbusiness........................... 121

Jerzy Grabowiecki: Zaibatsuconglomeratesasorganisational innovations atthetimeofthemodernisationofJapan’seconomy................................. 132

Małgorzata Wachowska: The importanceof the Japanesekeiretsugroupsforknowledgespillover.............................................................................. 144

Małgorzata Dolińska: Network-centricinnovations.ThecaseofChina....... 153Anna H. Jankowiak: Chineseindustrialclusters........................................... 164

6 Contents

Karolina Łopacińska: Cultural differences in the context of managing aninternationalcorporationwithaSwedishandChinesecapital............. 174

Part 4. Innovativeness of Asian financial markets

Magdalena Broszkiewicz: Innovations incorporategovernance systemas anecessaryimprovementsofcapitalmarketinJapan................................ 187

Jacek Pera: Modern trends in financial innovations on theAsianmarket. Anattemptofassessment........................................................................... 198

Artur Klimek: Sovereignwealthfundsintheglobaleconomy...................... 208Paweł Folfas: Dubai–anemergingandinnovativeoffshorefinancialcentre 217

Streszczenia

Jerzy Dudziński, Jarosław Narękiewicz, Iwona Wasiak: Ruchcenwhand- lumiędzynarodowymaeksportazjatyckichkrajówrozwijającychsię..... 22

Guenter Heiduk: Czykonkurencyjnośćwhandluopartanainnowacjachjestodpornanakryzys?PrzykładChin............................................................ 35

Bartosz Michalski: Technologicznaintensywnośćhandlumiędzynarodowe-go.Przypadektygrysówazjatyckichdrugiejgeneracji.............................. 46

Paweł Pasierbiak: Intensywność technologiczna japońskiegohandlu towa-rowego......................................................................................................... 58

Ewa Mińska-Struzik: Uczenie się przez eksport jako źródło innowacjiwprzedsiębiorstwachazjatyckich.............................................................. 71

Magdalena Kinga Stawicka: Ekonomiczneitechnologicznestrefyrozwojujako miejsce lokowania bezpośrednich inwestycji zagranicznych w Chinach....................................................................................................... 85

Maciej Żmuda: Motywy bezpośrednich inwestycji zagranicznych Chin wkrajachrozwijającychsię........................................................................ 97

Tadeusz Sporek: ZagraniczneinwestycjebezpośredniewNepalu.Strategiaipromocja..................................................................................................... 108

Aleksandra Kuźmińska-Haberla: Promocja bezpośrednich inwestycji za-granicznych.RozwiązaniazkrajówregionuAzjiiPacyfiku.................... 118

Sebastian Bobowski, Marcin Haberla: Usieciowioneklastrywkontekściestrategiiknowledge-seekingbiznesumiędzynarodowego......................... 131

Jerzy Grabowiecki: Konglomeratyzaibatsu jako innowacjeorganizacyjneokresumodernizacjigospodarkiJaponii.................................................... 143

Małgorzata Wachowska: Znaczeniejapońskichgrupkeiretsudlarozprze-strzenianiasięwiedzy................................................................................. 152

Małgorzata Dolińska: InnowacjepowstającewsiecinaprzykładzieChin... 163

Contents 7

Anna H. Jankowiak: Chińskieklastryprzemysłowe..................................... 173Karolina Łopacińska: Różnicekulturowewkontekściezarządzaniafirmą

wielonarodowązkapitałemszwedzkimichińskim................................... 184Magdalena Broszkiewicz: Innowacjewsystemieładukorporacyjnegojako

konieczneudoskonaleniefunkcjonowaniarynkukapitałowegowJaponii 197Jacek Pera: Współczesne tendencjew zakresie innowacji finansowychna

rynkuazjatyckim.Próbaoceny.................................................................. 207Artur Klimek: Rola państwowych funduszy majątkowych w gospodarce

światowej.................................................................................................... 216Paweł Folfas: Dubaj–wschodząceiinnowacyjnecentrumfinansowe.......... 226

PRACE NAUKOWE UNIWERSYTETU EKONOMICZNEGO WE WROCŁAWIU RESEARCH PAPERS OF WROCŁAW UNIVERSITY OF ECONOMICS nr 256 ● 2012

InnovationSourcesofEconomiesinEasternAsia ISSN1899-3192

Anna H. JankowiakWrocławUniversityofEconomics

CHINESE INDUSTRIAl ClUSTERS

Summary: Clustersareanincreasinglycommonformofbusinesscooperation,whichgivesaffiliatedentitiestremendousgrowthopportunitiesandsharedexperience.ThecountriesoftheAsia-Pacificregionarebecominganincreasinglypopularplacetolocateclusters,whichstemsfromvariousfactors.TheAsianregionisanattractiveregionforforeigndirectinvestment–somanynewbusinessesarecreatedthere.Alsothereexistsastrongtraditionofindustry,soclustersareformednaturallyasaconsequenceoftheconcentrationofspecialisedindustriesinthearea.TheclusterslocatedinChinaareanexampleofastrongerindustryconcentrationthanaverageindustrialclusters.ManyregionsinChinaareconcernedonlywithspecificproducts(e.g.,textiles),whicharesoldonnationalandinternationalmarkets.Theyareextremelywell--organisedclusters-cities,where a largenumberof small andmediumenterprisesoperate,whichbyactingtogetheraremorelikelytoachieveahighlevelofcompetitiveness.

Keywords:Chineseclusters,industrialclusters,development.

ThecountriesoftheAsia-Pacificregionarebecominganincreasinglypopularplacetolocateclusters.Ontheonehand,thereareclusterswhicharecreatedbyabottom--upinitiative,whichisderivedfromenterprisesthemselves;ontheotherhand,someclusters are made due to strong support of public institutions. The growingphenomenonofclusteringresultsfromvariousfactors.First,theAsianregionisanattractiveregionforforeigndirect investment,so therearemanynewbusinesses.Often,foreigncompaniestransferexperiencewhencreatingclustersforthebenefitoflocalentrepreneurs.Second,inAsiancountriesthereisastrongindustrialtradition;therefore, clusters are formed naturally as a consequence of the concentration ofspecialised industries in thearea.Third, therearemanysmall-andmedium-sizedAsiancompaniesthatareinvolvedininternationaltradeandonlythroughthecreationofaclusterhaveagreaterimpactonthemarket,suchasgarmentmanufacturingintheworld. Fourth, the local authority provides an effective policy cluster,whichsupportsclusterinitiativesandentrepreneurs’awarenessofpotentialbenefitsofthisformofcooperation.

AsianclustersdiffersignificantlyfromeachotherandthereisnosingleAsianmodelofclusters.InAsia,clustersareformedbringingtogetheralargenumberofsmallandmediumenterprises,whichbycooperationjoinforces,butalsoonecan

Chineseindustrialclusters… 165

providemanyexamplesofclusterscreatedbylargetransnationalcorporationsthataresurroundedbytheirsuppliersandmakeupwholeindustrialcities.Asianclustersarediverse,asarevariousAsianeconomies.Ontheonehand,onecanobserveclusters,dealingwiththesimplestproduction,formedintheAsiandevelopingcountries;ontheotherhand, thereareclustersofmodern technology, supra-regionalunits thatmakeuptheinternationalmarket,fromtheAsiandevelopedcountries.ThegoalofthisarticleistopresentChineseclusters,thenatureoftheiroperationandthemodelsofcreationwhicharetypicalforChineseindustry.

Chineseclustersaretypicalindustrialclusters,whichisidenticalwiththenatureofChinesemanufacturingfirms.IdentifyingChinaasacountrythatis“factoryoftheworld” translates intomodelsofclustersoccurring in thiscountry. Individualregionsandindustrialcitieshavebeenhighlyspecialisedintheproductionofcertaingoods andhavebecomeaworld centre for this kindof production, for example,SocksCity,SweaterCity,Kid’sClothingCity,FootwearCapital,andsoon.Chineseclusters are derived somehow from “specialty cities” of a particular kind. Theyassociate thousands of specialised small and medium enterprises but also largerplayers,whocooperatewitheachother in thesamearea,whichnaturallyfavoursformation of clusters in China. The cluster-based rural industrialisation not onlyplaysasignificantroleinChina’sindustrialgrowth,butwasalsoimportantintheearlystagesofindustrialisationinotherEastAsiancountries.1Mostoftheindustrialclusters in China have emerged spontaneously, as in many other countries, butthe government (especially local governments) has given all kinds of support totheirdevelopmentprocess.Chineseclustersoperatemainlyinthelabour-intensivemanufacturingsectors,thatis,atthelowerendoftheglobalvaluechain.2

Actually inChinaa lotofclustersexist and thisnumber is still increasing inconnectionwithenlargingindustrialisedregions.Somecitieshavebecomefamousfortheirparticularindustrialcluster,justafewexamplesofwhichareelectronicproductsinDongguan (Guangdong), bras and ladies’ underwear in Shantou (Guangdong),transportequipmentinShandongandlightersinWenzhou(Zhejiang).Clustersarepredominantlystilllocatedintheeasternpartofthecountry(seeFigure1).

OneoftheexamplesofChineseclusterswhichcanbeconsideredasa“specialtycity” isZhiliCluster.Zhili is a townnamed after textile industry located in theeastoftheHuzhoucityinZhejiangprovince.Itisacompleteproductionchainofchildrenwear composedof 10.4 thousand enterprises,which represent particularlinks in the production chain, such as design, printing, embroidery, buttons andgarmentmanufacturing factories.Most of the output of the companies from thecluster isdirected to the internationalmarket,only21%remainson thedomestic

1B.Fleisher,D.Hu,W.McGuire,X.Zhang,The Evolution of an Industrial Cluster in China,De-velopmentStrategyandGovernmentDivision,IFPRIDiscussionPaperNo.00896,September2009,p.1.

2D.Z.Zeng,How Do Special Economic Zones and Industrial Clusters Drive China’s Rapid Devel-opment?,PolicyResearchWorkingPaper5583,TheWorldBank,2011,p.25.

166 AnnaH.Jankowiak

market.Theclusterandrelated industriesareresponsible for40%of theGDPofthewholeregionand250thousandof300thousandpeopleinthetownaremigrantworkersandentrepreneursinvolvedincluster’sactivities.3

Whatisextremelyinterestingisthegeographicaldistributionofindustrialclustersin China. There are several regions concentratingmost dominant clusters, whiletheotherslacktheseformsofcooperationortheydonothaveastronginfluence.DefinitelythelargestnumberofclustersislocatedintheeastasshowninFigure1.Bycontrast,mostclustersareclustersfromseveraldominantindustriesasshowninTable1.

Figure 1. IndustrialclustersinChina

Source:Li&FungResearchCentre,TheBeijingAxis,www.thebeijingaxis.com.

3H.Zuhui,Y. Jifei,S.Yu,Stay Factors in the Industrial Transfer of Cluster: A Case Study of Children Wear Cluster of Zhili, Zhejiang, China,SystemsofInnovationforInclusiveDevelopment,InternationalDevelopmentResearchCouncil,Canada,pp.3–4.

Chineseindustrialclusters… 167

Table 1. Top100industrialclustersinChinaProvinces/municipalities/

regions (numberofclusters)

City/county Industrialclusters

1 2 3Zhejiangprovince(25) Xiaoshan,Hangzhou Steelstructuresindustrialcluster

Fuyang,Hangzhou BoxboardindustrialclusterLucheng,Wenzhou LighterindustrialclusterOuhai,Wenzhou LocksindustrialclusterLeqing,Wenzhou Mediumandlowvoltageelectricalappliancesindus-

trialclusterLongwan,Wenzhou ValvesindustrialclusterPingyang,Wenzhou PlasticwovenpackagingindustrialclusterChongfu,Tongxiang,Jiaxing FurindustrialclusterHaining,Jiaxing Leatherindustrialcluster

WarpknittingindustrialclusterPinghu,Jiaxing Opto-mechatronicsindustrialclusterYuyao,Ningbo MoldindustrialclusterCixi,Ningbo HouseholdelectronicappliancesindustrialclusterNinghai,Ningbo StationeryindustrialclusterYiwu,Jinhua SmallcommoditiesindustrialclusterYongkang,Jinhua Hardwareindustrialcluster

ElectrictoolsindustrialclusterShaoxing Textileindustrialcluster

DyeingindustrialclusterZhuji,Shaoxing Socksindustrialcluster

PearlsindustrialclusterShengzhou,Shaoxing TiesindustrialclusterWenling,Taizhou PlasticshoesindustrialclusterLuqiao,Taizhou SolidwasterecyclingindustrialclusterAnji,Huzhou Bambooproductsindustrialcluster

Jiangsuprovince(16) Yixing,Wuxi ElectricwiresandcablesindustrialclusterEnvironmentalprotectionequipmentindustrialclusterPurpleclayteawareindustrialcluster

Xishan,Wuxi ElectriccarindustrialclusterNewdistrictofWuxi Electronicsindustrialcluster

PhotovoltaicindustrialclusterKunshan,Suzhou ITindustrialcluster

CircuitboardindustrialclusterChangshu,Suzhou ApparelindustrialclusterShengze,Wujiang,Suzhou SilktextileindustrialclusterDanyang,Zhenjiang EyewearindustrialclusterJingjiang,Taizhou ShipbuildingindustrialclusterJiangyan,Taizhou EnergyequipmentindustrialclusterPizhou,Xuzhou WoodprocessingindustrialclusterJiangdu,Yangzhou LeathershoesindustrialclusterDonghai,Lianyungang Siliconeproductsindustrialcluster

Guangdong province(13)

Zhongshan MachineryandelectronicsindustrialclusterPackagingindustrialcluster

Guzhen,Zhongshan LightingindustrialclusterShaxi,Zhongshan CasualwearindustrialclusterDongguan ElectronicproductsindustrialclusterXintang,Zengcheng, Guangzhou DenimclothingindustrialclusterHuadu,Guangzhou AutomobileindustrialclusterShantou Underclothingindustrialcluster

168 AnnaH.Jankowiak

Table 1, cont.1 2 3

Chenghai,Shantou ToysindustrialclusterShenzhen ElectronicproductsindustrialclusterYuncheng,Yunfu StoneindustrialclusterXinxing,Yunfu KitchenwareindustrialclusterHuidong,Huizhou Shoesindustrialcluster

Shandongprovince(10) Jiaonan,Qingdao TextilemachineryindustrialclusterHaiyang,Yantai SweaterindustrialclusterPenglai,Yantai WineindustrialclusterWendeng,Weihai TextileindustrialclusterLinqingKi AxlebearingindustrialclusterRizhao0M FisheriesindustrialclusterZhangqiu,Jinan TransportequipmentindustrialclusterDezhouflJI SolarwaterheaterindustrialclusterLiaocheng SteelpipeindustrialclusterLinyi Cropprotectionmachineryindustrialcluster

Fujianprovince(7) Jinjiang,Quanzhou Trainersindustrialcluster ZipperindustrialclusterNan’an,Quanzhou PlumbinghardwareindustrialclusterHui’an,Quanzhou SnacksindustrialclusterPutian JadeprocessingindustrialclusterXianyou,Putian ChineseclassicalfurnitureindustrialclusterFengli,Shishi Children’swearindustrialcluster

Hebeiprovince(6) Hejian,Cangzhou InsulationmaterialsindustrialclusterBotou,Cangzhou MetalcastingindustrialclusterQinghe,Xingtai CashmereindustrialclusterTaocheng,Hengshui Rubber(appliedinengineering)industrialclusterXianghe,Langfang FurnitureindustrialclusterYongnian,Handan Fastenersindustrialcluster

Shanxiprovince(4) Taiyuan StainlesssteelindustrialclusterQingxu,Taiyuan RadiatorindustrialclusterDingxiang,Xinzhou ForgingindustrialclusterTaigu,Jinzhong Cokingindustrialcluster

Henanprovince(3) Gongyi,Zhengzhou Aluminumproductsindustrialcluster Refractorymaterialsindustrialcluster

Changyuan,Xinxiang CranesindustrialclusterLiaoningprovince(3) Faku,Shenyang Ceramicbuildingmaterialsindustrialcluster

Dashiqiao,Yingkou MagnesiumproductsindustrialclusterDandong Measuringinstrumentsindustrialcluster

Hubeiprovince(2) Yichang PhosphoruschemicalsindustrialclusterXiantao Nonwoventextileindustrialcluster

Hunanprovince(2) Liuyang,Changsha FireworksandfirecrackersindustrialclusterLiling,Zhuzhou Ceramicsindustrialcluster

Jilinprovince(2) Tonghua Pharmaceuticalindustrialcluster Steelindustrialcluster

Shanghai(1) Jinshan ChemicalsindustrialclusterChongqing(1) Bishan MotorcycleindustrialclusterAnhuiprovince(1) Hefei HouseholdappliancesindustrialclusterHeilongjiang province(1) Lanxi,Suihua LinenproductsindustrialclusterGuizhouprovince(1) Renhuai,Zunyi ChineseliquorindustrialclusterShaanxiprovince(1) Baoji TitaniumproductsindustrialclusterXinjiangUygur AutonomousRegion(1) Shihezi Cottontextileindustrialcluster

Source:Li&FungResearchCentre,IndustrialClustersSeries,June2010,Issue6,pp.10–11.

Chineseindustrialclusters… 169

AccordingtotheChineseAcademyofSocialSciencesandtherankingofthetop100industrialclustersinChinaonecanmakethefollowingobservations:

Uneven geographical distribution is characteristic of industrial clustersa)acrossChina–industrialclustersareconcentratedinthecoastalprovinces,butthoseintheinlandareemerging–around80%ofclustersarelocatedinthecoastalprovin-ces.Forty-twoofthemaresituatedintheYangtzeRiverDeltaregionandnineinthePearlRiverDeltaregion.MostoftheindustrialclustersarelocatedinJiangsu,Zhe-jiang,GuangdongandShandongprovinces–60%ofthetop100clustersin2009.

Thecoastalindustrialclustersaccommodateawidevarietyofproductswhi-b)lethecentralandwesternareasarespecialisedinproductsprocessedfromresour-cesavailablein theregions–awiderangeofproducts isproducedinthecoastalindustrialclusters, from lowvalue-added industries, suchasagriculturalproductsprocessing,toITandelectriccarmanufacturing.

ThebiggestindustrialclustersinChinaaremostlyengagedinmanufactu-c)ring–allofthetop100clustersareengagedinmanufacturing.MostofChineseclu-stersproducelowvalue-addedgoods,suchasclothes,textile,shoes,furniture,toysandstainlesssteel.Itisworthemphasisingthattherearenoclustersengagedintheservicessector.Apparelandtextileisthelargestsectoronthelist–20apparelandtextileclusterswereclassifiedonthelist.

Morehighvalue-addedindustrialclustersaregainingcompetence–mored)high-techindustrialclustersenteringthetop100listin2009.Forexample,theelec-triccarclusterandthephotovoltaicclusterinWuxiofJiangsuprovince,theelectro-nicsclusterinShenzhenandthesolarwaterheaterclusterinDezhouofShandong.Thetrendissettocontinue,consistentwiththegovernmentpolicytoimprovethequalityofeconomicgrowth.

New,competitiveindustrialclustersareconstantlyemerging–manyindu-e)strialclustersareemergingascompetitiveplayers,challengingtheoldones.4

Accordingtothedata,theclusterrepresentsamajorpowerinitsregion,aswellasnationally,and through thepro-exportorientationalso shapes the internationalmarket.Whatisveryinterestingis,however,thecompositionandstructureofthisclusterofentities.Thevastmajorityof theclusteroperatorsaresmallbusinessesemployingup to60employees,while thereare few largeenterprises.5Data fromdetailedresearchshowthat70%ofthoseresponsibleforsewingmaterialsaresuper-smallbusinessesandsmall,whileinthecaseofproduction–60%oftheentities.Thismeans that theundoubted success of the cluster corresponds tomany smallbusinesses, which through the development of cluster’s bond contribute to theincreaseintheproductioncluster.

4Li&FungResearchCentre,Industrial Clusters Series,June2010,Issue6,pp.12–13.5 Super-smallenterpriseshavelessthan20employees,smallenterpriseshave21–60employees,

medium-smallenterpriseshave61–120employeesandtheresthavemorethan120employees.

170 AnnaH.Jankowiak

EveryChinese cluster has its own development history andwas formed in adifferentway.However,somemainreasonsforcreatingaclusterinChinacanbepresented:

The open door policy and reform – f) almostalltheclusterswereformedafterChina’s openingup.The reforms andopendoorpolicies provided amacro-envi-ronmentthatallowedtheprivatesectortoflourishandforeigninvestmenttoenterChina.Beforethereforms,allprivatebusinesseswereofficiallyforbidden.

Long history of production or business activities in a particular sector – g) bu-sinessactivityinagivensectorprecededmanyChineseclusters.Forexample,theWenzhoufootwearclusterinZhejiangprovincehasalonghistoryofshoemakingandhasbuiltuplocalproductioncapacityovertime.

Proximity to major local markets and infrastructure – h) ingeneral,mostofthese clusters are located in the coastal region, close to internationalmarkets. Inaddition,theyarealsogenerallybasedinatownormajorcityandareclosetomainroads,railways,highways,andports.Thislocationadvantageisespeciallyimportantforexport-orientedclusters.

Entrepreneurs with tacit knowledge and skills in production and trading – i)thelongtraditionandknowledgepasseddownfromgenerationtogenerationthro-ughfamilyandkinshiptieshaveplayedanimportantroleinclusterformation.

Foreign direct investment and the diaspora – j) clustersbenefitingfromFDIandthediasporaareconcentratedmostlyontheeasternsideofthePearlRiverDeltaregion,intheDongguan,HuizhouandShenzhenareas.Theeconomiesoftheseclu-stersaredrivenmainlybyoverseasChineseandforeignfirms.

Natural and human endowments – k) suchfactorsareespeciallyimportantfornatural resource-based clusters, such as those in seafoodprocessing, fruits, stonecarving,aquaculture,ceramicsandfurniture.

Market pull – l) whenChinahadbeenfirstopenedup,therewasahugeshor-tageofalmosteverythingasaresultofthecentrallyplannedeconomy.Thesedespe-ratemarketneedsprovidedapowerfulreasonfortheexistenceofnumerousclustersthatsprangupinashortperiodoftime.

Government facilitation and industrial transfer – m) inrecentyears,becauseof risingcosts, limited landand toughenvironmental requirements,manycoastalclustershavebeguntomoveinland;someclustersinthemiddleandwesternregionswereformedthroughsuchtransfers.Insomecases,thosemoveswerehighlyinflu-encedbydeliberategovernmentpolicies;however,suchtransfersarestillbasedlar-gelyonamarketchoice,inwhichthegovernmentplaysmainlyafacilitatingrole.6

ClustersinChinaaresuccessfulprimarilybecausetheyareabletoincreasethediversityandsophisticationoftheirbusinessactivitiestoachievegreaterproductivity,efficiency and competitiveness. In the export-led growth model, this ability isespeciallycrucial.Thewell-knownlow-costlabourfactorandmanyotherelementshavecontributedtothesuccessofChineseindustrialclusters.Theseinclude:

6D.Z.Zeng,How Do Special Economic…,op.cit.,pp.26–27.

Chineseindustrialclusters… 171

Efficiency gains and lowered entry barriersa) –inmanyChineseclusters,as-sociatedfirmsoperateindifferentmanufacturingsegmentsaswellasinrelatedse-rvices,andbecauseofthattheyformwell-functioningvaluechainsandproductionnetworkswithanefficientdivisionoflabour.Forexample,theDatangsocksclusterinZhejiangprovincecomprises2,453socksfirms,550rawmaterialfirms,400rawmaterialdealers,312hemstitchingfactories,5printinganddyeingplants,305pac-kingfactories,208mechanicalfittingssuppliers,635sockdealersand103shipmentservicefirms.Inaddition,DatangLightFabricandSockCityhas1,600shops.

Effective local government supportb) –mostChineseclustersreceivehelpandsupportfromtheauthorities,althoughitsformandtimeallocationaredifferent.Inmostcases,governmentassistancegoestotheclustersthatalreadyexistandhavealreadybeguntoshowtangiblebenefits.SupportforclustersfromtheChineseau-thoritiesmayhavedifferentrangesbutusuallymanifestsitselfby:

Infrastructure building – – the Chinese government has given high priority toroads,water,electricityandtelephonelines,andhavetriedtobuildaspecialisedmarketorindustrialparktofacilitatebusinessactivities.Thismarketcanbringsuppliers, producers, sellers and buyers together and help build forward andbackwardlinkages.Forexample,inXiqiaothecitygovernmentsetuptheSouthTextileMarket in1985toreplacetheoriginal informalmarket toregulate thelocalmarketandstimulatemassproductionandsales.Regulations, quality assurance and standards setting – –localgovernmentsoftentry to improve services and regulatory environment to facilitate businessgeneration and help clusters operate normally andmaintain dynamic growth;theyintroducespecificregulations,especiallythoserelatedtoinvestmenttype,productqualityandstandards,toensurethatproductsmadeinclustershaveamarketfuture.Technology, skills and innovation support – –localgovernmentsareincreasinglyemphasisingtechnologyinnovationandupgrading.Becauseimitationwithinaclusterissometimeseasy,firmshesitatetoinvestininnovationandtechnologyupgrading,andthusgovernmentinterventioncanbejustified.Forexample,inGuangdong, the provincial government has invested RMB 300,000 in eachspecialised town to build a public technology innovation centre to supportclusters’innovationandtechnologyactivities.Preferential policies and financial support – – localgovernmentsoftenprovidecertain incentives, including desirable land, tax reduction or exemption, andaccesstocreditsandloanstoattractqualifiedenterprisestoclusters.

Knowledge, technology and skill spillovers through inter-firm linkagesa) –manyclustersbenefitedfromstate-ownedenterprises(SOEs)andFDI,whichpro-videdimportantinitialtechnologyandacrucialimpetusforclusters’development.Theclustersinthecoastalregion(thePearlRiverDelta–clustersinHuizhouandDongguan)weredrivenbyFDI,especiallyfromthediasporainHongKong,China,Macao,ChinaandTaiwan.

172 AnnaH.Jankowiak

Entrepreneurial spirit and the social networkb) –manyclustersinChinahavealonghistoryofbusinessandindustry,whichcanhelpthemontheirwaytodevelop-ment.Becausemanytransactionsinvolveanumberofdifferentplayersinacluster,theuseofformaland,whatisevenmoreimportant,informalcontractsiscrucial.

Innovation and technology support from knowledge and public institutionsc) – Besides government’s actions, universities and research institutes also providesupportforinnovationandtechnologyupgradinginclusters.Inthecaseoftheclu-ster inWenzhou,WenzhouUniversityhasplayedan important role insupportingtechnologyinnovationinthefootwearandotherclusters.Thecentrehasfocusedon“green”productdevelopment,cleanleatherproductiontechnologyandotherhigh- -techresearchonleatherproduction.

Support from industrial associations and other intermediary organisationsd) –many industrial associations, especially those in industrial clusters,havebeguntoplayimportantroles. InWenzhou,shoemakingfirmsfoundedthefirstshoema-kers’associationin1991–theWenzhouLuchengAssociation.Itcurrentlyhas1,138members and26branches.The tasksof theorganisationare to connect the localauthorityandfirms,introducenewtechnologiesandhelpimproveshoequality,helpfirmsenterandexpandondomesticandoverseasmarkets throughmarketingandbrandingservices,provideinformationservices,promotetradeandprovidetraininginpartnershipwithnationalfootwearinstitutions.7

Inconclusion,itcanbesaidthattheformoflinksbetweenproductioncompaniessuch as industrial clusters is expanding in the case of the Chinese economy.Currently,therearemanyclusterslocatedmainlyintheeastofthecountry,whicharetypicallyproductiveinnature.Theseclustersarecomplexsupplychains,creatinga whole industrial city specialising in a particular production.Affiliated entitiesoffer comprehensive production from a given field (e.g., clothing) as each stageofproduction is realised in thecluster.Thisdesignensures efficientoperationofthedomesticmarketand,evenmoreimportantfromtheperspectiveoftheChineseeconomy,oftheinternationalmarket.Althoughindustrialclustersaretraditionallyunderstoodasclustersoflow-levelinnovationinmanyChineseclustersactionsareaimedatincreasinginnovationactors.Asignificantroleinthisprocessisplayedbythenationaland localpower,which througha seriesofvariedactivities supportsthecreationofR&Dcentresinthecluster.Improvinginnovationclusters,includingthosenotproducingtraditionalhigh-techgoods,willallowforabetteradaptationtochangingmarketcircumstancesand improvementof theconditionof theChineseeconomy.

7Ibidem,pp.28–33.

Chineseindustrialclusters… 173

references

FleisherB.,HuD.,McGuireW.,ZhangX.,The Evolution of an Industrial Cluster in China,DevelopmentStrategyandGovernmentDivision,IFPRIDiscussionPaperNo.00896,September2009.

Li&FungResearchCentre,Industrial Clusters Series,June2010,Issue6.ZengD.Z.,How Do Special Economic Zones and Industrial Clusters Drive China’s Rapid Development?,

PolicyResearchWorkingPaper5583,TheWorldBank,2011.ZuhuiH.,JifeiY.,YuS.,Stay Factors in the Industrial Transfer of Cluster: A Case Study of Children

Wear Cluster of Zhili, Zhejiang, China, Systems of Innovation for Inclusive Development,InternationalDevelopmentResearchCouncil,Canada.

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CHIńSKIE KlASTRY PRZEMYSŁOWE

Streszczenie: Klastry to coraz powszechniejsza formawspółpracy przedsiębiorstw, któradajezrzeszonympodmiotomogromnemożliwościrozwojuiwymianydoświadczeń.Krajez regionuAzji i Pacyfiku stają się coraz częstszymmiejscemulokowania klastrów, na conakładająsięzróżnicowaneczynniki.Regionazjatyckijestatrakcyjnymregionemdlabez-pośrednichinwestycjizagranicznych,dziękiktórympowstajewielenowychprzedsiębiorstw,atakżeistniejetamsilnatradycjaprzemysłowa,zatemklastrytworząsięniejakonaturalniejakonastępstwokoncentracjiwyspecjalizowanegoprzemysłunadanymterenie.Przykłademkoncentracjiprzemysłuwstopniuwiększymniżprzeciętnasąklastryprzemysłoweuloko-wanewChinach.Wieleregionówchińskichzajmujesiętylkookreślonąprodukcją(np.tek-stylia),któranastępnietrafianarynekkrajowyimiędzynarodowy.Sątoniezwyklesprawniezorganizowaneklastry-miasta.Funkcjonujewnichogromnaliczbamałychiśrednichprzed-siębiorstw,któredziałając razem,mająwiększeszansenaosiągnięciewysokiegopoziomukonkurencyjności.

Słowa kluczowe: klastrychińskie,klastryprzemysłowe,rozwój.