ANGIELSKI B2 GRAMATYKA

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CONTENTS

2. Present Simple

5. Present Continuous

7. Past Simple

9. Past Continuous

10. Present Perfect Simple

12. Present Perfect Continuous

13. Future Simple

14. 'Going to'

15. Gerunds and Infinitives

17. Modal verbs: can, could, should, must

18. Passive voice

22. Reported Speech / Reporting verbs

24. Complex sentences

First and second conditional;

Time clauses: as soon as, when, while, before, after;

Defining and non defining relative clauses;

Verbs: cause, make, let, enable, allow, stop, prevent (from);

In order to, by means of;

Due to, owing to, because of, as a result;

Questions

Comparison of Adjectives and Adverbs

Prepositions

Constructions:

have to vs. Must

can vs. be able to

to be possible

be capable of

succeed in

manage to

have / get something done

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PRESENT SIMPLE

To be

affirmative

negative

question

I

I am.

I am not.

Am I?

he/she/it

He is.

He is not.

Is he?

you/we/they

You are.

You are not.

Are you?

To have

affirmative

negative

question

I/you/we/
they

I have got. /
I have.

I have not got. /
I do not have.

Have I got? /
Do I have?

he/she/it

He has got. /
He has.

He has not got. / He does not have.

Has he got? / Does he have?

Other verbs

affirmative

negative

question

I/you/we/
they

I play.

I do not play.

Do I play?

he/she/it

He plays.

He does not play.

Does he play?

Exceptions in Spelling

Exception

Example

The verbs can, may, might, must remain the same in all forms. So don't add -s.

he can, she may,
it must

Verbs ending in o or a sibilant (ch, sh, s, x) add es instead of s.

do - he does,
wash - she washes

A finaly after a consonant becomes ie before s.
(but: don't modify after a vowel)

worry - he worries (but: play - he plays

-3-Short Forms

affirmative

negative

I am English. = I'm English.

I am not English. = I'm not English.

We are English.= We're English.

We are not English. = We're not / We aren't English.

He is English. = He's English.

He is not English. = He's not /
He isn't English.

I have got a dog. = I've got a dog.

I have not got a dog. = I've not got a dog. / I haven't got a dog.

He has got a dog. = He's got a dog.

He has not got a dog. = He's not got a dog. / He hasn't got a dog.

I do not play tennis. = I don't play tennis.

He does not play tennis = He doesn't play tennis.

Use

Use

Example

action in the present taking place once, never or several times

Colin always plays soccer on Tuesdays.

actions in the present taking place one after another

She takes her bag and leaves.

facts (something is generally known to be true)

The sun sets in the west.

action set by a timetable or schedule

The train leaves at 9 pm.

verbs of possession, senses, emotions and mental activity

I love her.

-4-Typical Signal Words

always

every

often

normally

usually

sometimes

seldom

never

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PRESENT CONTINOUS

Form

affirmative

negative

question

I

I am playing.

I am not playing.

Am I playing?

he, she, it

He is playing.

He is not playing.

Is he playing?

you, we, they

You are playing.

You are not playing.

Are you playing?


Exeption

Example

Silent e is dropped before ing (but:ee is not changed)

come - coming (but: agree - agreeing)

final consonant after short, stressed vowel is doubled

sit - sitting

final consonant l after vowel is always doubled (in British English)

travel - travelling

Ie becomes y before ing

lie - lying

Short Forms

positiv

negativ

I am playing. - I'm playing.

I am not playing. - I'm not playing.

He is playing. -

He's playing.

He is not playing. - He's not playing. / He isn't playing.

We are playing. - We'replaying.

We are not playing. - We're not playing. /We aren't playing.

-6-Use

Use

Example

actions taking place at the moment of speaking (now)

He is playing football.

arrangements for the near future

I'm going to the theatre tonight.

actions taking place only for a limited period of time

Jim is helping in his brother's firm this week.

actions taking place around now (but not at the moment of speaking)

I'm studying for my exams.

development, changing situations

The population of China is rising very fast.

Typical Signal Words

at the moment

now / just now / right now

Listen!

Look!

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PAST SIMPLE

Form of Simple Past

Positive

Negative

Question

no differences

I spoke.

I did not speak.

Did I speak?

For irregular verbs, use the past form . For regular verbs, just add ed.

Exceptions in Spelling when Adding ed

Exceptions in spelling when adding ed

Example

after a final e only add d

love loved

final consonant after a short, stressed vowel
or l as final consonant after a vowel is doubled

admit admitted
travel travelled

Final y after a consonant becomes i

hurry hurried

Use of Simple Past

action in the past taking place once, never or several times

Example: He visited his parents every weekend.

actions in the past taking place one after the other

Example: He came in, took off his coat and sat down.

action in the past taking place in the middle of another action

Example: When I was having breakfast, the phone suddenly rang.

if sentences type II (If I talked, )

Example: If I had a lot of money, I would share it with you.

-8-Signal Words of Simple Past

yesterday, 2 minutes ago, in 1990, the other day, last Friday

If-Satz Typ II (If I talked, )

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PAST CONTINUOUS

Form

Positive

Negative

Question

I / he / she / it

I was speaking.

I was not speaking.

Was I speaking?

you / we / they

You were speaking.

You were not speaking.

Were you speaking?


Exceptions in spelling when adding ing

Example

Final e is dropped (but: ee is not changed)

Come coming
(but: agree-agreeing)

after a short, stressed vowel, the final consonant is doubled

Sit sitting

L as final consonant after a vowel is doubled (in British English)

Travel travelling

Final ie becomes y

Lie lying

Use of Past Progressive

puts emphasis on the course of an action in the past

Example: He was playing football.

two actions happening at the same time (in the past)

Example: While she was preparing dinner, he was washing the dishes.

action going on at a certain time in the past

Example: When I was having breakfast, the phone suddenly rang.

Signal Words of Past Progressive

when, while, as long as

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PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE

Form of Present Perfect

Positive

Negative

Question

I/you/we/they

I have spoken.

I have not spoken.

Have I spoken?

he/she/it

He has spoken.

He has not spoken.

Has he spoken?

For irregular verbs, use the participle form. For regular verbs, just add ed.

Exceptions in Spelling when Adding ed

Exceptions in spelling when adding ed

Example

after a final e only add d

love loved

final consonant after a short, stressed vowel
or l as final consonant after a vowel is doubled

admit admitted
travel travelled

Final y after a consonant becomes i

hurry hurried

Use of Present Perfect

puts emphasis on the result
Example: She has written five letters.

action that is still going on
Example: School has not started yet.

action that stopped recently
Example: She has cooked dinner.

finished action that has an influence on the present
Example: I have lost my key.

action that has taken place once, never or several times before the moment of speaking
Example: I have never been to Australia.

-11-Signal Words of Present Perfect

already, ever, just, never, not yet, so far, till now, up to now

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PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS

Form of Present Perfect Progressive

Positive

Negative

Question

I / you / we / they

I have been speaking.

I have not been speaking.

Have I been speaking?

he / she / it

He has been speaking.

He has not been speaking.

Has he been speaking?


Exceptions in spelling when adding ing

Example

Final e is dropped(but ee is not changed)

come coming
(but: agree agreeing)

after a short, stressed vowel, the final consonant is doubled

Sit sitting

L as final consonant after a vowel is doubled (in British English)

TraveL travelling

Final ie becomes y

Lie Lying

Use of Present Perfect Progressive

puts emphasis on the duration or course of an action (not the result)
Example: She has been writing for two hours.

action that recently stopped or is still going on
Example: I have been living here since 2001.

finished action that influenced the present
Example: I have been working all afternoon.

Signal Words of Present Perfect Progressive

all day, for 4 years, since 1993, how long?, the whole week

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FUTURE SIMPLE

Form of Future

positive

negative

question

no differences

I will speak.

I will not speak.

Will I speak?

Use of will Future

a spontaneous decision
example: Wait, I will help you.

an opinion, hope, uncertainty or assumption regarding the future
example: He will probably come back tomorrow.

a promise
example: I will not watch TV tonight.

an action in the future that cannot be influenced
example: It will rain tomorrow.

conditional clauses type I
example: If I arrive late, I will call you.

Signal Words

in a year, next, tomorrow

Vermutung: I think, probably, perhaps

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'GOING TO'

Form of going to Future

positive

negative

question

I

I am going to speak.

I am not going to speak.

Am I going to speak?

you/we/ they

You are going to speak.

You are not going to speak.

Are you going to speak?

he/ she / it

He is going to speak.

He is not going to speak.

Is he going to speak?

Use of going to Future

an action in the near future that has already been planned or prepared.
example: I am going to study harder next year.

a conclusion regarding the immediate future.
example: The sky is absolutely dark. It is going to rain.

Signal Words

in one year, next week, tomorrow

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GERUNDS AND INFINITIVES

GERUND
Form
ing form of the verbExceptions in Spelling

See Present Progressive Exceptions

Use

Certain words are followed by an ing-Form.

Use and Word Lists

Example

as the subject of a clause

Cycling is good for your health.

after certain adjectives

Hes afraid of going by plane.

after certain prepositions

Before going to bed he turned off the lights.

after certain verbs

I enjoy cooking.

after certain verbs with prepositions

I am looking forward to seeing you again.

after certain nouns

We had problems finding our way back home.

Words followed either by Infinitive or Ing-Form

Use and Word Lists

Example

same meaning

I started to read. / I started reading.

same meaning but different use

She forbids us to talk. / She forbids talking.

different meaning

He stopped to smoke. / He stopped smoking.

infinitive or present participle

I saw him go up the stairs. / I saw him going up the stairs.

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Infinitive
Use
Certain words are followed by an infinite verb with or without to.

Use and Word Lists

Example

as the subject of a clause

To know you is to love you.

after certain expressions (withoutto)

Why not go to the cinema?

after certain verbs (withoutto)

I can swim.

after certain verbs (withto)

He wants to swim.

after certain verbs with interrogatives (infinitive constructions)

They dont know how to swim.

after certain verbs with objects (without to)

He made her swim.

after certain verbs with objects (withto)

They wanted him to swim.

after certain adjectives and their comparisons

Its easier to swim downstream.

after nouns deriving from the verbs mentioned above

We made a promise to swim. (derived from the verb to promise)

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MODAL VERBS: CAN, COULD, SHOULD, MUST...

They express an ability, permission, wish etc. to do something. (I may, can, must swim.) Many modal verbs cannot be used in all of the English tenses. That's why we need to know the substitutes to these modal verbs.

Modal Verb

Substitute

Example

must

to have to

I must swim. = I have to swim.

must not

not to be allowed to

I must not swim. = I am not allowed to swim.

can

to be able to

I can swim. = I am able to swim.

may

to be allowed to

I may swim. = I am allowed to swim.

need

to have to

I need to swim. = I have to swim.

need not

not to have to

I need not swim. = I don't have to swim.

shall / should/ ought to

to be supposed to /
to be expected to /
to be to

I shall / should / ought to swim. = I am supposed to swim. / I am expected to swim. / I am to swim.

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PASSIVE VOICE

Use of Passive
Passive voice is used when the focus is on the action. It is not important or not known, however, who or what is performing the action.
Example: My bike was stolen.
In the example above, the focus is on the fact that my bike was stolen. I do not know, however, who did it.

Sometimes a statement in passive is more polite than active voice, as the following example shows:
Example: A mistake was made.
In this case, I focus on the fact that a mistake was made, but I do not blame anyone (e.g. You have made a mistake.).

Form of Passive

Subject + finite form of to be + Past Participle (3rd column)
Example: A letter was written.

When rewriting active sentences in passive voice, note the following:

the object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence

the finite form of the verb is changed (to be + past participle)

the subject of the active sentence becomes the object of the passive sentence (or is dropped)

-19-Examples of Passive

Tense

Subject

Verb

Object

Simple Present

Active

Rita

writes

a letter.

Passive

A letter

is written

by Rita.

Simple Past

Active

Rita

wrote

a letter.

Passive

A letter

was written

by Rita.

Present Perfect

Active

Rita

has written

a letter.

Passive

A letter

has been written

by Rita.

Future I

Active

Rita

will write

a letter.

Passive

A letter

will be written

by Rita.

Hilfsverben

Active

Rita

can write

a letter.

Passive

A letter

can be written

by Rita.

Present Progressive

Active

Rita

is writing

a letter.

Passive

A letter

is being written

by Rita.

Past Progressive

Active

Rita

was writing

a letter.

Passive

A letter

was being written

by Rita.

Past Perfect

Active

Rita

had written

a letter.

Passive

A letter

had been written

by Rita.

Future II

Active

Rita

will have written

a letter.

Passive

A letter

will have been written

by Rita.

Conditional I

Active

Rita

would write

a letter.

Passive

A letter

would be written

by Rita.

Conditional II

Active

Rita

would have written

a letter.

Passive

A letter

would have been written

by Rita.

Passive Sentences with Two Objects

Rewriting an active sentence with two objects in passive voice means that one of the two objects becomes the subject, the other one remains an object. Which object to transform into a subject depends on what you want to put the focus on.

Subject

Verb

Object 1

Object 2

Active:

Rita

wrote

a letter

to me.

Passive:

A letter

was written

to me

by Rita.

Passive:

I

was written

a letter

by Rita.

As you can see in the examples, adding by Rita does not sound very elegant. Thats why it is usually dropped.

Personal and Impersonal Passive

Personal Passive simply means that the object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence. So every verb that needs an object (transitive verb) can form a personal passive.
Example: They build houses. Houses are built.

Verbs without an object (intransitive verb) normally cannot form a personal passive sentence (as there is no object that can become the subject of the passive sentence). If you want to use an intransitive verb in passive voice, you need an impersonal construction therefore this passive is calledImpersonal Passive.
Example: he says it is said

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Impersonal Passive is not as common in English as in some other languages (e.g. German, Latin). In English, Impersonal Passive is only possible with verbs of perception (e. g. say, think, know).
Example: They say that women live longer than men. It is said that women live longer than men.

Although Impersonal Passive is possible here,Personal Passive is more common.
Example: They say that women live longer than men. Women are said to live longer than men.

The subject of the subordinate clause (women) goes to the beginning of the sentence; the verb of perception is put into passive voice. The rest of the sentence is added using an infinitive construction with 'to' (certain auxiliary verbs and that are dropped).

Sometimes the term Personal Passive is used in English lessons if the indirect object of an active sentence is to become the subject of the passive sentence.

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REPORTED SPEECH / REPORTING VERBS

If we report what another person has said, we usually do not use the speakers exact words (direct speech), but reported (indirect) speech. Therefore, you need to learn how to transform direct speech into reported speech. The structure is a little different depending on whether you want to transform a statement, question or request.

Statements

When transforming statements, check whether you have to change:

pronouns

present tense verbs (3rd person singular)

place and time expressions

tenses (backshift)

Type

Example

direct speech

I speak English.

reported speech
(no backshift)

He says that he speaks English.

reported speech
(backshift)

He said that he spoke English.

Questions

When transforming questions, check whether you have to change:

pronouns

present tense verbs (3rd person singular)


tenses (backshift)

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Also note that you have to:

transform the question into an indirect question

use the interrogative or if / whether

Type

Example

with interrogative

direct speech

Why dont you speak English?

reported speech

He asked me why I didnt speak English.

without interrogative

direct speech

Do you speak English?

reported speech

He asked me whether / if I spoke English.

Requests

When transforming questions, check whether you have to change:

pronouns


Type

Example

direct speech

Carol, speak English.

reported speech

He told Carol to speak English.

Additional Information and Exeptions

Apart from the above mentioned basic rules, there are further aspects that you should keep in mind, for example:

main clauses connected with and / but

tense of the introductory clause

reported speech for difficult tenses

exeptions for backshift

requests with must, should,ought to and lets

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COMPLEX SENTENCES

a) FIRST AND SECOND CONDITIONAL

1st conditional

The conditional I simple expresses an action that might take place.

Form

A: He would talk.

N: He would not talk.

Q: Would he talk?

Use

action that might take place

if clause type II (If I were you, I would go home.)

2nd conditional

The conditional II simple expresses an action that could have taken place in the past.

Form

A: He would have talked.

N: He would not have talked.

Q: Would he have talked?

Use

action that could have taken place in the past

if causes type III (If I had seen that, I would have helped.)

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Conditional Sentences are also known as Conditional Clauses or If Clauses. They are used to express that the action in the main clause (without If) can only take place if a certain condition (in the clause with If) is fulfilled. There are three types of Conditional Sentences.

Conditional Sentence Type 1

It is possible and alsO very likely that the condition will be fulfilled.

Form: if +Simple Present,will-Future
Example:If I find her address, Ill send her an invitation.


It is possible but very unlikely, that the condition will be fulfilled.

Form:if+Simple Past,Conditional I(= would + Infinitive)
Example: If I found her address, I would send her an invitation.


It is impossible that the condition will be fulfilled because it refers to the past.

Form: if +Past Perfect,Conditional II(= would + have + Past Participle)
Example:If I had found her address, I would have sent her an invitation.

Exceptions
Sometimes Conditional Sentences Type I, II and III can also be used with other tenses.

-26-

b) TIME CLAUSES: AS SOON AS, WHEN, WHILE, BEFORE, AFTER;

Verbs in time clauses and conditionals follow the same patterns as in other clauses except:

In clauses with time words like when, after, until we often use the present tense forms to talk about the future:

Ill come home when I finish work.
You must wait here until your father comes.
They are coming after they have had dinner.

in conditional clauses with if or unless we often use the present tense forms to talk about the future:

We wont be able to go out if it is raining.
If Barcelona win tomorrow they will be champions.
I will come tomorrow unless I have to look after the children.

We do not normally use will in clauses with if or with time words:

Ill come home when I will finish work.
We wont be able to go out if it will rain. rains.
It will be nice to see Peter when he will get home gets home.
You must wait here until your father will come comes.

but we can use will if it means a promise or offer:

I will be very happy if you will come to my party.
We should finish the job early if George will help us.

"if" clauses and hypotheses

Some clauses with if are like hypotheses so we use past tense forms to talk about the present and future.

We use the past tense forms to talk about the present in clauses with if:

for something that has not happened or is not happening:

He could get a new job if he really tried.

=

He cannot get a job because he has not tried.

If Jack was playing they would probably win

=

Jack is not playing so they will probably not win.

If I had his address I could write to him

=

I do not have his address so I cannot write to him.

We use the past tense forms to talk about the future in clauses with if:

for something that we believe or know will not happen:

We would go by train if it wasnt so expensive

=

We wont go by train because it is too expensive.

I would look after the children for you at the weekend if I was at home

=

I cant look after the children because I will not be at home.

to make suggestions about what might happen:

If he came tomorrow we could borrow his car.
If we invited John, Mary would bring Angela.

When we are talking about something which did not happen in the past we use the past perfect in the if clause and a modal verb in the main clause:

If you had seen him you could have spoken to him

=

You did not see him so you could not speak to him

You could have stayed with us if you had come to London

=

You couldnt stay with us because you didnt come to London.

If we hadnt spent all our money we could take a holiday.

=

We have spent all our money so we cant take a holiday

If I had got the job we would be living in Paris

=

I did not get the job so we are not living in Paris.

-28-

If the main clause is about the past we use a modal with have:

If you had seen him you could have spoken to him.

=

You did not see him so you could not speak to him.

You could have stayed with us if you had come to London.

=

You couldnt stay with us because you didnt come to London.

If you had invited me I might have come.

=

You didnt invite me so I didnt come.

If the main clause is about the present we use a present tense form or a modal without have:

If I had got the job we would be living in Paris now.

=

I did not get the job so we are not living in Paris now.

If you had done your homework you would know the answer.

=

You did not do your homework so you do not know the answer.

DEFINING AND NON-DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES

We use relative clauses to give additional information about something without starting another sentence. By combining sentences with a relative clause, your text becomes more fluent and you can avoid repeating certain words.

How to Form Relative ClausesLevel 2

Imagine, a girl is talking to Tom. You want to know who she is and ask a friend whether he knows her. You could say:

A girl is talking to Tom. Do you know the girl?

That sounds rather complicated, doesn't it? It would be easier with a relative clause: you put both pieces of information into one sentence. Start with the most important thing you want to know who the girl is.

Do you know the girl

-29-

As your friend cannot know which girl you are talking about, you need to put in the additional information the girl is talking to Tom. Use the girl only in the first part of the sentence, in the second part replace it with the relative pronoun (for people, use the relative pronoun who). So the final sentence is:
Do you know the girl who is talking to Tom?

Relative Pronouns

relative pronoun

use

example

who

subject or object pronoun for people

I told you about the woman who lives next door.

which

subject or object pronoun for animals and things

Do you see the cat which is lying on the roof?

which

referring to a whole sentence

He couldnt read which surprised me.

whose

possession for people animals and things

Do you know the boy whose mother is a nurse?

whom

object pronoun for people, especially in non-defining relative clauses (in defining relative clauses we colloquially prefer who)

I was invited by the professor whom I met at the conference.

that

subject or object pronoun for people, animals and things in defining relative clauses (who or which are also possible)

I dont like the table that stands in the kitchen.

-30-Subject Pronoun or Object Pronoun?

Subject and object pronouns cannot be distinguished by their forms - who, which, that are used for subject and object pronouns. You can, however, distinguish them as follows:

If the relative pronoun is followed by a verb, the relative pronoun is a subject pronoun. Subject pronouns must always be used.
the apple which is lying on the table

If the relative pronoun is not followed by a verb (but by a noun or pronoun), the relative pronoun is an object pronoun. Object pronouns can be dropped in defining relative clauses, which are then called Contact Clauses.
the apple (which) George lay on the table

Relative Adverbs

A relative adverb can be used instead of a relative pronoun plus preposition. This often makes the sentence easier to understand.
This is the shop in which I bought my bike.
This is the shop where I bought my bike.

relative adverb

meaning

use

example

when

in/on which

refers to a time expression

the day when we met him

where

in/at which

refers to a place

the place where we met him

why

for which

refers to a reason

the reason why we met him

-31-Defining Relative Clauses

Defining relative clauses (also called identifying relative clauses or restrictive relative clauses) give detailed information defining a general term or expression. Defining relative clauses are not put in commas.

Imagine, Tom is in a room with five girls. One girl is talking to Tom and you ask somebody whether he knows this girl. Here the relative clause defines which of the five girls you mean.
Do you know the girl who is talking to Tom?

Defining relative clauses are often used in definitions.
A seaman is someone who works on a ship.

Object pronouns in defining relative clauses can be dropped. (Sentences with a relative clause without the relative pronoun are called Contact Clauses.)
The boy (who/whom) we met yesterday is very nice.

Non-Defining Relative Clauses

Non-defining relative clauses (also called non-identifying relative clauses or non-restrictive relative clauses) give additional information on something, but do not define it. Non-defining relative clauses are put in commas.

Imagine, Tom is in a room with only one girl. The two are talking to each other and you ask somebody whether he knows this girl. Here the relative clause is non-defining because in this situation it is obvious which girl you mean.
Do you know the girl, who is talking to Tom?

Note: In non-defining relative clauses, who/which may not be replaced with that.

Object pronouns in non-defining relative clauses must be used.
Jim, who/whom we met yesterday, is very nice.

-32-How to Shorten Relative Clauses?

Relative clauses with who, which, that as subject pronoun can be replaced with a participle. This makes the sentence shorter and easier to understand.
I told you about the woman who lives next door. I told you about the woman living next door.
Do you see the cat which is lying on the roof? Do you see the cat Lying on the roof?

d) CAUSE, MAKE, LET, ENABLE, ALLOW, STOP, PREVENT (FROM)

Verbs of enablement and obligation, or causative verbs, often cause problems for students. In English, they have some rather peculiar structures that may not correspond to structures in your own language. Here are the basic rules, to help you master these important verbs.

1. Verbs of obligation and permission:

allow, ask, authorise, instruct, invite, leave, oblige, permit, require, tell, want;
After these verbs, the second verb is in the infinitive with to.
Examples:

He told me to hurry.
They allowed us to leave the room.
The man instructed me to come down.
I want you to know I love you.

N.B. With all these verbs, the subordinate clause must be introduced by a subject, which is also the object of the main clause:
for example, we cannot say:

** The man permitted to open the doors **
** I told not to do that **

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All the verbs listed can be easily used in the passive except want.
Examples:

The singer was told to come down.
He was invited to give a concert.
She was forbidden to leave the room.
I was required to fill in a form.
They were asked to sit down.

2. Verbs of prevention:

Stop, prevent, hinder:
These verbs are followed by from and an -ing structure. The word from is essential withhinder, optional with stop and prevent.
Examples:

He hindered us from starting in time.
He stopped me (from) falling in the hole.
They prevented me (from) going out.

Stop is not usually used in the passive, but hinder and prevent easily accept passive structures:
Examples:

The hooligans were prevented from making trouble.
We were hindered by the bad weather.

Forbid
The verb forbid is followed by a full infinitive with to, just like verbs of obligation above. It can also be used in the passive

I'm going to forbid the children to stay out after 9 o'clock.
They were forbidden to stay out after nine o'clock at night.

34-3. Causative verbs - verbs of direct authority:

let, make, have.
With these 3 verbs, the second verb form is the infinitive without to.
Examples:

I let him do it.
He made me sit down.
Have him tell you what he saw!

Of these three verbs, only one can be used in the passive make : Example,

I was made to take off my skates.

Dont confuse let and leave: when followed by an object and a subsidiary clause, leavemeans abandon, quit.

We left him to get on with his work. (i.e. we went away)

does not mean the same as

We let him get on with his work (i.e. we allowed him to....)

Get.
With this verb, the second verb form is the full infinitive with to.
Examples:

I got the people to read the instructions very carefully.

ANGIELSKI B2 GRAMATYKA

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