NOBEL PRIZEWINNER
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973 A better anatomical result, it was found, could usually be achieved by this method; and, although the anatomical and functional results do not correlate completely, it may be possible by this means to avert some of the gross permanent displacements which are associated with con- siderable deformity and disability. AGRICULTURAL PROBLEMS IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES ABOUT two-thirds of the world’s population is inade- quately fed. Most of these people live in developing countries in the tropics. It is probably no accident that few of these countries have reached the levels of economic development found in mid-latitudes, for undernourish- ment limits capacity for work and increases the incidence of disease. Great efforts have been made since the end of the war, both by national Governments and by inter- national agencies, to improve the standard of living in these countries by raising agriculture from a subsistence economy to a commercial economy. Good progress has been made; but an enormous further increase in food production could result from a wider application of present-day knowledge, as was emphasised by Prof. R. G. Baskett in his introductory remarks as chairman of a Nutrition Society symposium on Oct. 13. Prof. L. Dudley Stamp gave an illuminating account of the climatic limitations to development in the tropics. The outstanding problem, he said, is the control of water, particularly its conservation in the arid regions. Prof. A. H. Bunting considered arable cropping, Mr. T. J. Lansbury livestock production, and Mr. R. S. Rack fishery development, each in the light of first-hand experience. Plans drawn up by F.A.O. for increasing animal production were discussed by Dr. J. C. Shaw. The problems of arable cropping are generally more easily tackled than those of livestock production, and in the past decade the world output of arable crops has increased by more than 50%. This increase has been achieved mainly by raising the yield per acre, though the area under cultivation has been enlarged by about 10%. Not all countries have benefited equally: whereas the increases in output in China have been particularly strik- ing, the yields in India have remained low. Professor Bunting believes that further improvements should follow the wider planting of improved crop varieties, the application of better production methods (including the use of fertilisers), and the more widespread use of agri- cultural chemicals to control pests both in the growing and in the harvested crop. Livestock and fish are important as dietary sources of much-needed protein of high biological value. The predominant livestock in these regions are cattle, sheep, and goats; these ruminant animals compete less directly for human food than pigs or poultry, which, however, have their place where suitable feeds are available and where waste products can form a part of their diet. Cattle provide a means of producing human food from large areas that would be otherwise unharvested, but at present cattle production is seriously limited by wasting through shortage of food and water in the dry season. The introduction of European breeds appears to offer little advantage, for satisfactory production can be obtained with the native breeds when they are adequately fed. The real need, as both Dr. Shaw and Mr. Lansbury pointed out, is for more research on the nutritional requirements of cattle in tropical countries, on the improvement of pastures and the conservation of fodder, and on the value of non-protein nitrogen supplements to poor-quality roughages. Much progress has been made in the control of disease; and, although there is more to be done, the main factors now limiting production are nutritional. It was made abundantly clear that the useful application of modern methods of husbandry in the developing countries must go hand-in-hand with higher educational standards and technical training, and it is here that the more highly developed countries can make their greatest contribution. NOBEL PRIZEWINNER THE 1961 Nobel prize in medicine has been awarded to Dr. Georg von Bekesy for his outstanding contribution to our knowledge of the transformation of mechanical energy into neural energy in the cochlea. von Bekesy has been a senior research fellow at the psycho-acoustic laboratory at Harvard since 1947. He is a physicist who was born in Hungary in 1899 and studied at the Universities of Berne and Budapest. His earlier researches from 1924 to 1946 were carried out in the Royal Hungarian Institute for Research in Telegraphy in Budapest. After this he spent a short period at the Royal Institute of Technology at Stockholm. As early as 1928 he had produced a hypothesis based on new observations which, as Wever rightly states, inaugurated the modern era of travelling-wave theories of vibration of the basilar membrane. Largely because of the smallness of the middle ear and cochlea and the difficulties of making accurate measure- ments, many theories have been proposed to account for the phenomena of hearing. Bekesy’s contribution was to produce further facts, realising that it was useless to theorise about how the ear discriminated pitch without knowing how the vibrations produced by a sound were distributed along the length of the basilar membrane. One of his most successful methods of research has been the making of the models for which he has become famous. Sometimes these were the size of the human cochlea, but at other times large-scale models were constructed in the way that large ships are built from small models. Bekesy showed that each of the four major theoretical vibration patterns of the basilar membrane could be obtained by varying two elastic properties of the mem- brane and that the opposing theories shaded into one another more than had been realised. If the two variables are adjusted to their numerical values in the cochlea of a living animal or a fresh preparation of the human ear, travelling waves are observed along the membrane which have a flat maximum that shifts its location along the membrane with a change of frequency, the place of the maximum determining the pitch. Experiments using the sense of touch indicate that such flat maxima can produce quite sharp local sensations by a nervous inhibitory reaction. Bekesy’s genius is shown not only in his ability to select the significant problem and his ingenuity in evolving methods to solve it, but also in a rare gift of lucid exposi- tion, apparent in the numerous papers now fortunately gathered together in his Experiments in Hearing. This choice as Nobel prizeman will give great satisfaction to everyone concerned with the problems of hearing.
Transcript of NOBEL PRIZEWINNER
973
A better anatomical result, it was found, could usuallybe achieved by this method; and, although the anatomicaland functional results do not correlate completely, it maybe possible by this means to avert some of the grosspermanent displacements which are associated with con-siderable deformity and disability.
AGRICULTURAL PROBLEMS INDEVELOPING COUNTRIES
ABOUT two-thirds of the world’s population is inade-quately fed. Most of these people live in developingcountries in the tropics. It is probably no accident thatfew of these countries have reached the levels of economic
development found in mid-latitudes, for undernourish-ment limits capacity for work and increases the incidenceof disease. Great efforts have been made since the endof the war, both by national Governments and by inter-national agencies, to improve the standard of living inthese countries by raising agriculture from a subsistenceeconomy to a commercial economy. Good progress hasbeen made; but an enormous further increase in food
production could result from a wider application of
present-day knowledge, as was emphasised by Prof.R. G. Baskett in his introductory remarks as chairman ofa Nutrition Society symposium on Oct. 13. Prof. L.
Dudley Stamp gave an illuminating account of theclimatic limitations to development in the tropics. The
outstanding problem, he said, is the control of water,particularly its conservation in the arid regions. Prof.A. H. Bunting considered arable cropping, Mr. T. J.Lansbury livestock production, and Mr. R. S. Rack
fishery development, each in the light of first-hand
experience. Plans drawn up by F.A.O. for increasinganimal production were discussed by Dr. J. C. Shaw.The problems of arable cropping are generally more
easily tackled than those of livestock production, and inthe past decade the world output of arable crops hasincreased by more than 50%. This increase has beenachieved mainly by raising the yield per acre, though thearea under cultivation has been enlarged by about 10%.Not all countries have benefited equally: whereas theincreases in output in China have been particularly strik-ing, the yields in India have remained low. Professor
Bunting believes that further improvements shouldfollow the wider planting of improved crop varieties, theapplication of better production methods (including theuse of fertilisers), and the more widespread use of agri-cultural chemicals to control pests both in the growingand in the harvested crop.Livestock and fish are important as dietary sources of
much-needed protein of high biological value. The
predominant livestock in these regions are cattle, sheep,and goats; these ruminant animals compete less directlyfor human food than pigs or poultry, which, however,have their place where suitable feeds are available andwhere waste products can form a part of their diet.Cattle provide a means of producing human food fromlarge areas that would be otherwise unharvested, but atpresent cattle production is seriously limited by wastingthrough shortage of food and water in the dry season.The introduction of European breeds appears to offerlittle advantage, for satisfactory production can beobtained with the native breeds when they are adequatelyfed. The real need, as both Dr. Shaw and Mr. Lansbury
pointed out, is for more research on the nutritional
requirements of cattle in tropical countries, on the
improvement of pastures and the conservation of fodder,and on the value of non-protein nitrogen supplements topoor-quality roughages. Much progress has been madein the control of disease; and, although there is moreto be done, the main factors now limiting production arenutritional.
It was made abundantly clear that the useful applicationof modern methods of husbandry in the developingcountries must go hand-in-hand with higher educational
standards and technical training, and it is here that themore highly developed countries can make their greatestcontribution.
NOBEL PRIZEWINNER
THE 1961 Nobel prize in medicine has been awarded toDr. Georg von Bekesy for his outstanding contribution toour knowledge of the transformation of mechanical energyinto neural energy in the cochlea.von Bekesy has been a senior research fellow at the
psycho-acoustic laboratory at Harvard since 1947. He isa physicist who was born in Hungary in 1899 and studiedat the Universities of Berne and Budapest. His earlierresearches from 1924 to 1946 were carried out in the
Royal Hungarian Institute for Research in Telegraphy inBudapest. After this he spent a short period at the RoyalInstitute of Technology at Stockholm. As early as 1928he had produced a hypothesis based on new observationswhich, as Wever rightly states, inaugurated the modernera of travelling-wave theories of vibration of the basilarmembrane.
Largely because of the smallness of the middle ear andcochlea and the difficulties of making accurate measure-ments, many theories have been proposed to account forthe phenomena of hearing. Bekesy’s contribution was toproduce further facts, realising that it was useless to
theorise about how the ear discriminated pitch withoutknowing how the vibrations produced by a sound weredistributed along the length of the basilar membrane. Oneof his most successful methods of research has been the
making of the models for which he has become famous.Sometimes these were the size of the human cochlea, butat other times large-scale models were constructed in theway that large ships are built from small models.
Bekesy showed that each of the four major theoreticalvibration patterns of the basilar membrane could beobtained by varying two elastic properties of the mem-brane and that the opposing theories shaded into oneanother more than had been realised. If the two variablesare adjusted to their numerical values in the cochlea of aliving animal or a fresh preparation of the human ear,travelling waves are observed along the membrane whichhave a flat maximum that shifts its location along themembrane with a change of frequency, the place ofthe maximum determining the pitch. Experiments usingthe sense of touch indicate that such flat maxima can
produce quite sharp local sensations by a nervous
inhibitory reaction.Bekesy’s genius is shown not only in his ability to select
the significant problem and his ingenuity in evolvingmethods to solve it, but also in a rare gift of lucid exposi-tion, apparent in the numerous papers now fortunatelygathered together in his Experiments in Hearing. Thischoice as Nobel prizeman will give great satisfaction toeveryone concerned with the problems of hearing.
