Uniwersytet Mikołaja Kopernika Wydział Filologiczny

Katedra Filologii Angielskiej Łukasz Młotkowski

Nr albumu: 139873

Praca magisterska na kierunku: filologia angielska

Mechanisms of foreignisation and domestication in

translations of science fiction literature (on the basis of George Lucas’s Star Wars)

Mechanizmy adaptacji i wyobcowania w tłumaczeniach literatury science fiction,

na podstawie Gwiezdnych wojen George’a Lucasa

Praca wykonana pod kierunkiem Dr Ewy Kościałkowskiej-Okońskiej Katedra Filologii Angielskiej UMK

Toruń 2006

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Contents/Spis treści

Introduction ............................................................................................................ 4

Chapter 1: Outline of foreignisation and domestication mechanisms ................... 6

1.1 Foreignisation and domestication ................................................................ 6

1.1.1 Definitions............................................................................................. 6

1.1.2 Brief history .......................................................................................... 7

1.1.3 Domestication in theories by Eugene Nida........................................... 9

1.1.4 The Skopos and Nord’s documentary and instrumental translation ... 10

1.1.5 Hatim and Mason’s framework........................................................... 11

1.2 Proper names.............................................................................................. 12

1.2.1 Classification of proper names............................................................ 13

1.3 Major categorizations of translation procedures........................................ 15

1.3.1 Definition of translation strategies and procedures ............................ 15

1.3.2 Vinay and Darbelnet’s procedures...................................................... 16

1.3.3 Newmark’s procedures ....................................................................... 18

1.3.4 Vermes’s translation operations applied to proper names .................. 20

1.3.5 Consolidated taxonomy of lexical procedures, as proposed by

Kwieciński.................................................................................................... 21

Chapter 2: The science fiction genre and Star Wars as its representative ........... 25

2.1 Introduction to science-fiction ................................................................... 25

2.1.1 Key terminology concerned with science fiction................................ 28

2.1.2 Brief historical outline of science-fiction and its best known

representatives.............................................................................................. 31

2.2 Star Wars as a representative of science fiction......................................... 38

2.2.1 Influences on Star Wars ...................................................................... 39

2.3 Science-fiction in Poland ........................................................................... 41

Chapter 3: Source materials and empirical study................................................. 45

3.1 The research ............................................................................................... 45

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3.1.1 Source materials for empirical study .................................................. 46

3.1.2 Applied methodology.......................................................................... 48

3.1.3 Projected results .................................................................................. 49

3.1.4 Abbreviations ...................................................................................... 50

3.1.5 Subcategory “Locations”: ................................................................... 50

3.1.6 Subcategory “Characters” ................................................................... 54

3.1.7 Subcategory “Vehicles and starships” ................................................ 57

3.1.8 Subcategory “Organisations”.............................................................. 62

3.1.9 Subcategory “Other” ........................................................................... 65

3.2 Research summary ..................................................................................... 68

3.2.1 Brief survey; comparison of results .................................................... 70

Conclusion............................................................................................................ 72

Bibliography......................................................................................................... 74

Primary sources:............................................................................................... 74

Material sources: .............................................................................................. 75

Streszczenie.......................................................................................................... 77

Appendix A: Campbell’s “Hero’s Journey” and Star Wars ................................ 80

Appendix B: Complete list of researched vocabulary items................................ 81

Appendix C: Details concerning the main research............................................. 83

Appendix D: Details concerning the survey conducted among SF readers......... 84

Appendix E: Interview with Piotr W. Cholewa ................................................... 86

Appendix F: Interview with Agnieszka Sylwanowicz......................................... 88

Appendix G: Interview with Maciej Szymański.................................................. 91

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Introduction

The focus of the present thesis is to explore the notions of foreignisation and

domestication and their application through different procedures to translations

of contemporary literature. In order to estimate the possible dominance of one of

the above strategies over the other, a study will be made on a body of

contemporary, science fiction literature. George Lucas’s Star Wars series was

selected as the genre’s representative, due to its popularity among science fiction

(SF) readers and critics today.

The notions of foreignisation and domestication, though formulated and

defined only recently, have dominated the discipline of translation since its very

beginnings. They are respectively connected with the “word-for-word” and

“sense-for-sense” strategies of translation, which have been in use since the times

of ancient Rome. The former term was regarded as means of transferring the

source text literally into the target text, thus preserving the original style and

introducing ‘alien’ vocabulary. Sense-for-sense renditions, on the other hand,

aim at a fluent and intelligible target text, even at the expense of terminological

precision. As a result, the original passages were transformed into the target

version rather than translated, often through the deletion or substitution of

elements typical for the source culture.

The domesticating sense-for-sense strategy was the dominant approach in

translation until only recently. The 19th century saw a tendency towards the

foreign, expressed mainly through the theories put forward by Friedrich

Schleiermacher, who stated that the audience was to have “the feeling that they

are in the presence of the foreign” (Fawcett 1997: 116). His views were later

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revised by Venuti, who regarded foreignisation as a means of combating the

dominant, assimilative position of the English-language culture.

The results of the main research will allow, first and foremost, to identify

the dominant translation strategy in Polish renditions of popular literature. They

will also make it possible to measure the degree of tolerance, or resistance, to the

foreign element in Polish SF.

The present thesis is comprised of three chapters. Chapter 1 introduces

relevant theoretical background, essential for further study of the subject matter.

It explores the notions of foreignisation and domestication, provides their

definitions of them and presents them in a historical context, along with

contemporary approaches to the problem. Since the study is to be conducted on

proper names, the chapter will also provide their established definitions and

classifications. The chapter will conclude with the presentation of popular

classifications of translation procedures.

Chapter 2 aims at a concise but informative presentation of the science

fiction genre. After providing its established definitions, the chapter will present

key terminology concerned with SF, as well as its brief historical outline. It will

then move on to Star Wars, defining and enumerating its influences and setting it

against a general background of the SF genre. Finally, the Chapter will conclude

with a brief look on the Polish SF tradition in order to present the rich heritage of

Polish SF literature.

Chapter 3 will present a detailed account of the materials on which the

main study is conducted. It will also provide details concerning the methodology

of the study and projected results, based on theories presented in Chapter 2.

Following the summary of results of the main study, the chapter will provide

details and outcome of the research conducted among a group of SF readers. A

comparison of the results of the two studies will conclude the chapter.

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Chapter 1: Outline of foreignisation and domestication

mechanisms

Chapter 1 aims at providing theoretical background with reference to the subject

matter of the present dissertation. Consequently, it will primarily deal with

foreignisation and domestication mechanisms, providing definitions, brief history

and examples of contemporary approaches to the notions in question. Definition

of proper names will be supplied, followed by their classification by Newmark

and Vermes. The chapter will conclude with a definition of translation strategies

and procedures, and their major categorisations.

1.1 Foreignisation and domestication

The terms ‘foreignisation’ and ‘domestication’ have been coined by Venuti as

means of providing general classification for translation procedures (see 1.3). He

defines them in detail in his influential work, titled The Translators Invisibility: A

History of Translation (1995).

1.1.1 Definitions

According to Ventui (1995: 19-20), a foreignising strategy consists in acquiring a

translation method which does not conform to norms and values prevalent within

the target language system. Employing such an approach, which preserves

linguistic and cultural differences between the two systems, requires a translation

style designed to make the intervention of the translator visible (Munday 2001:

147), resulting in a non-fluent, alienating TT (Baker 1998: 243). This effect is

usually achieved through close reconstruction of the ST structure and syntax in

the TT and importation of foreign cultural forms.

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Domesticating translation strategy, as a contrast, entails an appropriation,

or reduction (Venuti 1995: 20), of the foreign text into target-language

conventions and makes use of stylistic devices, which provide for a transparent

and fluent reading, minimizing the foreigness of the TT (Munday 2001: 146).

Domestication is also said to involve selecting texts which adhere to domestic

literary canons, resulting in “a conservative and openly assimilationist approach

to the foreign text” (Baker 1998: 242), which is to serve domestic publishing

trends and political alignments.

1.1.2 Brief history

Domestication strategies were in common use since ancient Rome, chiefly as

means of conquering the SL (Baker 1998: 241). Latin translators not only deleted

culturally specific markers, but also added allusions to Roman culture and

deleted “resistant passages” (Kwieciński 2001: 17), that is to say, lexical

elements which required a great deal of study since they could easily by

misinterpreted.

The largest step for the formulation of domesticating translation theory is

considered to be made by St. Jerome, the author of Vulgate Latin translation of

the Bible commissioned in 384 CE. Following remarks offered earlier by Cicero,

he identified the notion of word-for-word translation, a foreignising strategy, and

opposed it with a domesticating alternative, a sense-for-sense strategy, as the

correct method to render SL text, thus introducing an important distinction,

which shed new light on the study of foreignisation and domestication.

The use of exoticisms in translation was advocated by Augustine, due to

concerns about the reaction of the Christian community to the unfamiliar features

of Jerome’s Latin text of the Bible. He does, however, oppose the use of Greek

calques should these be incompatible with Latin or “resistant”.

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Bible translation became a key issue, around which different approaches

to translation surfaced (Bassnett 1991: 47). The domesticating strategy was

employed in the Wycliffite Bible translation, where the sense-for-sense strategy

aimed at rending the text in a common language so that the Holy Scripture be

accessible to a layman, and not loosing scholarly accuracy at the same time.

Renaissance largely contributed to the development of the domesticating

theory. The use of contemporary idiom and style was much advocated; in his

Circular Letter of Translation (1530), Martin Luter emphasised the necessity to

rely on the common language (Kwieciński 2001: 24). He recognised that

exoticisms in certain cases cannot and should not be avoided, provided that the

translator uses them after careful historical and philological study.

The 17th century translation style pushed domestication beyond earlier

limits. Abraham Cowley’s comments in his ‘Preface’ to his Pindarique Odes

(1656), in which he states that he has “taken, left out and added what I please”

(Bassnett 1991: 56) while translating, are highly symptomatic of the general

atmosphere affected by the Counter-Reformation movement.

The first systematic approach to the issue of translation strategies was

offered in 1791 by A.F. Tyler in his Essay on the Principles of Translation. In it

he points to three laws which should govern translation in general: a) the

rendering is to be carried out sense-for-sense; b) style and register are to remain

invariant; c) “the translation should have all the ease of the original composition”

(Kwieciński 2001: 35).

The 19th century saw a turn towards the foreign in thinking on translation.

This new tendency, visible in the works of Shelly and Goethe, claimed

translation to be a mechanical function, which consists merely of ‘making

known’ a given text or author to the reader (Bassnett 1991: 66). This approach is

conveyed in the theories offered by Friedrick Schleiermacher in his lecture Über

die verschiedenen Methoden des Übersetzens (1813). The document deals with

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two opposite concepts, “the foreginising reader-to-author strategy and the

domesticating author-to-reader strategy … with no in-between area” (Kwieciński

2001: 39). The former option was favoured, through the use of which

consciously archaic translations were produced, aimed at a minority of learned

readers. Indeed, the audience was to have “the feeling that they are in the

presence of the foreign” (Fawcett 1997: 116).

1.1.3 Domestication in theories by Eugene Nida

A significant shift in translation theory was brought forth by the influential

theories of Eugene Nida, who addressed the issue of translation correspondence

through the viewpoint of the receptor of the text. It is suggested that audience

design has profound impact on the shape of the target text, and therefore

“different translations will be ‘correct’ for different readerships” (Fawcett 1997:

56). Thus, meaning is to have precedence before style, the TT aiming at being an

equivalent of ST rather than its identical representation. This return to

Augustinian principles of sense-for-sense translations is exemplified by Nida’s

formulation of notions of formal and dynamic equivalence.

The latter, domesticating strategy was seen as privileged since it aimed at

“complete naturalness of expression” and finding “the closest natural equivalent

to the SL message” (Nida 1964: 159). Dynamic equivalence acknowledged

situations where foreign associations can hardly be avoided, in which case the

use of importation combined with intratextual covert glosses was suggested as

the proper way of approaching the foreign. Translations in the formal

equivalence manner on the other hand, were regarded as cases where “semantic

accuracy is given priority over naturalness” (Kwieciński 2001: 50). Such

renderings were seen as acceptable and for certain types of audiences (the

aforementioned accuracy is of great importance in legal texts, for instance).

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Though Nida’s model has been challenged by some theorists, particularly

for its departure from the notion of translation as exchange of information

towards “appropriation of a foreign text for domestic purposes” (Kwieciński

2001: 50), the idea of function of a given text with respect to its readership was

indeed influential for contemporary theories.

1.1.4 The Skopos and Nord’s documentary and instrumental translation

A domesticating bias in translation theory was also expressed by German

scholars under the Skopos theory. The Skopos, here understood as the purpose of

translation, is a central notion deciding on the mode of translation a particular

task may require. The domesticating nature of this approach is visible through the

requirement of intelligibility of the TT, which should be acceptable and

consistent first and foremost with the receiver’s situation. Translation, moreover,

is regarded as inherently involving domestication, since “a foreign culture can

only be perceived by means of comparison with our own culture” (Nord 1997:

24).

In terms similar to Nida’s theories, Nord recognises two general modes of

rendering a text, namely documentary and instrumental translation. Similar to

Nida’s notion of formal equivalence, it is regarded as means of creating a TT,

where the SC setting is left unchanged, but where preservation of intelligibility is

essential for the translation to be successful. This is contrasted with the notion of

instrumental translation, which aims at the effect through which “readers are not

supposed to be aware that they are reading a translation at all” (Nord 1997: 52),

an approach which requires extensive use of normalisation and covert cultural

substitution.

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1.1.5 Hatim and Mason’s framework

The relevance of a translation to audience design and task is of crucial

importance in the analytical framework put forward by Hatim and Mason. Their

theories concern different text types (e.g. argumentation or instruction) which are

to be adjusted by translator’s skills to be effective and efficient for a given group

of recipients (Hatim and Mason 1990: 9). These are points similar to those raised

by Nord, what is here unique, however, is that the perspective on domestication

is viewed through the prism of the notion of cultural asymmetry (“the relative

strength or weakness of the TC vis-à-vis the SC”, Kwieciński 2001: 72) and

cultural politics:

Whereas textual patterns and conventions are constantly modified when texts in

less dominant languages are translated into English, the reverse is not the case.

It seems that many of the world’s languages are finding English rhetorical

patterns creeping in. The degree of tolerance of foreign structures seems to be

proportional to the relative prestige of a language. (Hatim and Mason 1990:

191)

In the revised, 1997 version of their formulation, Hatim and Mason challenge

Venuti’s view of foreignisation as a preferred strategy, a ‘resistancy’ to the

growing ‘tyranny’ of English language system values occurring worldwide

(Munday 2001: 147). This notion of preservation of linguistic and cultural

differences through the conscious use of foreignising procedures, Hatim and

Mason point out, “only holds within a translation situation in which the TL and

not the SL is culturally dominant” (Kwieciński 2001: 68).

This comment is highly relevant for the present thesis, for the study

undertaken in Chapter 3 deals indeed with a transfer from a dominant to an

inferior language culture. Since the research is conducted on proper names, it is

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essential to explore their classifications in order to be able to ascribe the items

studied into fixed categories.

1.2 Proper names

Proper names, as defined by Newmark (1988b: 70), refer to persons, objects or

processes peculiar to a single ethnic community. They prototypically have

singular references, with the exception of trademarks, brand-names and

proprietary names (see 2.2.1 below), which refer to categories of objects.

According to common theories, proper names do not require translation,

since they do not carry any connotations or meanings (Vermes 2003: 90).

Considered mere labels, proper names are often recognised as a simple matter of

automatic transference in translation.

There are, however, less restrictive approaches in circulation. Newmark

suggests a given name should not be translated, unless there already is an

accepted translation in circulation or the name is used as a metaphor. Vermes

(2003: 90) is even less restrictive; quoting Searle (1975) and Strawson (1975) he

argues that proper names function not only as mere labels and not only should

one translate them, but also one should be aware that there is delicate decision-

making involved in the process.

Vermes’s study, moreover, provides valuable insight as far as the typical

application of translation procedures to various proper names sub-classes is

concerned. Vermes claims prototypical proper names, which do not carry a

descriptive content, are associated with empty logical entries (e.g. stock names)

and are typically transferred (Vermes 2003: 92). Less prototypical instances –

names which have the logical entry at least partially filled (e.g. pseudonyms) –

undergo translation in most cases.

There have been numerous attempts to account for the multiplicity of

disciplines the proper names have come to refer to, by means of classification

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into fixed categories, governed by individual rules as far as translation in

concerned.

1.2.1 Classification of proper names

The problem of classification of proper names was discussed in detail by Peter

Newmark in his A Textbook of Translation (1988a) and Approaches to

Translation (1988b).

1.2.1.1 People’s first and surnames

This is by far the largest category identified. Transference is suggested (see 1.3)

in most instances as the correct translation procedure, however there are certain

exceptions. Translation is generally encouraged in renditions of Christian names,

as well as names of historical figures, saints, monarchs and popes (Newmark

1988b: 70). Additionally, naturalisation (see 1.3) may be employed, particularly

when translating names of classical writers.

What is more, for names appearing in fiction (in comedies, allegories,

fairy tales, folk tales and children stories) translation is also preferable, unless

nationality expressed in a given item is important, in which case transference is

advisable. Where it is essential to retain not only the nationality, but also the

connotations a given name carries, Newmark suggests to “first … translate the

word that underlies the SL proper name into the TL, and then to naturalise the

translated word back into a new SL proper name” (Newmark 1988a: 215).

Consulting with previous translations of a given title is advisable, in order to

avoid introducing new and possibly unacceptable names.

1.2.1.2 Geographical terms

Geographical terms constitute the second largest category of proper names.

Included within its boundaries are names of villages, towns, cities, also streets

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and squares. The translator should respect official labels established by the

country in question. It is essential, therefore, to stay up-to-date with current

geographical terminology, which also helps avoiding inventing new terms where

unnecessary. On the other hand, Newmark observes that “some features are

sufficiently politically uncontested to remain as they were in English: Belgrade

(Beograd), Prague (Praha), Algiers (Al-Djazair), Tunis (Tunus), Tripoli

(Trabulus – Libya and Lebanon)” (Newmark 1988a: 216).

1.2.1.3 Names of objects

Within this category trademarks, brands and proprietaries (ie. legally restricted

names) are distinguished by the author. Transference is suggested as the

prototypical procedure; if a given name is not likely to be identifiable in the TC,

a classifier may be added in translation to deal away with any ambiguities.

Translation is also acceptable if a given name is used generically (e.g.

refrigerator).

1.2.1.4 Other subcategories

Forms of address including aristocratic and professional titles, are to be

translated if there is a recognised equivalent (Newmark 1988b: 73). Otherwise

they are to be either transferred or deleted, with the professional information

added, if necessary.

Names of firms, private institutions, schools, universities, hospitals etc.

are not to be translated due to their strong link with the SC However, Newmark

acknowledges exceptions from this rule, particularly in informal texts.

Similar approach is suggested for names of newspapers, journals and

periodicals, which are to be transcribed without exception. Works of art are

commonly referred to by established translated titles, however if a given piece of

art is little known transference in suggested.

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1.2.1.5 Vermes’s classification of proper names

An expansion on the above classification is offered by Vermes (2003: 96). Apart

from categories coined by Newmark, he also distinguishes the following sub-

classes: names of nationalities; events; temporal units and festivals; abstract

ideas; animals and species. He does not, however, provide any individual

guidelines for translating these sub-categories.

Following, is a brief exploration of categorisations of translation

procedures, which are applied to proper names in the study conducted in Chapter

3.

1.3 Major categorizations of translation procedures

With reference to the study conducted in Chapter 3, it is essential to provide the

reader with background information on translation procedures applied to lexical

items, which are at the same time relevant to the present subject matter.

1.3.1 Definition of translation strategies and procedures

For the sake of further study, it is essential to distinguish between translation

strategies and procedures. While both notions are “textually manifest, norm-

governed and intersubjectively verifiable” (Kwieciński 2001: 120), the former

represents a global tendency represented in the degree of underlining the source-

culture versus target-culture concepts, norms and conventions. The latter term is

applied to individual actions carried out on lexical items undergoing translation.

There are several independent systems of translation procedures’

classification. Taking into consideration the current study, the most relevant

theories are presented in the remainder of the chapter.

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1.3.2 Vinay and Darbelnet’s procedures

The earliest classification of translation procedures, coined in 1958 (translated to

English in 1995), was put forward by Vinay and Darbelnet. By studying the

exchange of lexical items between French and English, they have pinpointed

seven different mechanisms to take place (Vinay and Darbelnet 1995:31) and

subdivided them into direct (literal) and oblique translation procedures.

There are three direct translation procedures. Borrowing is regarded as the

most straightforward option, by means of which translators are able to bridge

gaps (or lacunae) between languages whenever a SL term has no equivalent in

TL. Borrowing entails direct transference of a given SL lexical item into TL;

some borrowings have entrenched themselves deeply into TL, so that they are

currently regarded as part of it (e.g. déjà vu, rendez-vous). Calque is similar to

borrowing in that it introduces a SL expression into the TL, however, each

element of the term borrowed is translated literally into TL. The resulting calque

either follows the syntactic structure of the TL and introduces a new mode of

expression (a lexical calque), or introduces a completely new construction into

the TL (a structural calque). As with borrowings, calques also become part of the

target language, up to a point, when they are considered calques no longer.

Finally, literal translation, a “direct transfer of a SL text into a grammatically and

idiomatically appropriate TL text” (Vinay and Darbelnet 1995: 33), is regarded

as most commonly used in cases where translation occurs between two languages

of the same family. Ideally, the translated passage is fully reversible, i.e. back

translation reverts the TT to the original message with very high accuracy.

Vinay and Darbelnet provide four oblique translation procedures.

Transposition is a strategy, by means of which the translator changes the

grammatical category of a given element for the TL rendition, without changing

the overall meaning of the message. Vinay and Darbelnet also regard this

procedure as applicable within just one language, since it is possible to re-express

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a message merely by means of grammatical substitution. The authors recognise

two types of transposition: obligatory (employed when the TL does not allow the

use of direct procedures) and optional. Modulation, the second oblique

procedure, involves manipulation of the form of the original message through the

change of perspective in its TL version. The authors distinguish cases of fixed

(i.e. recognised) and free (ad-hoc) modulation and provide its subtypes: abstract

for concrete (an SL item is rendered by its more general TL counterpart),

explicative modulation (involves substitution of effect by cause, result by means,

and the object by substance), the part for the whole (a SL object is represented by

its single feature in the TL), one part for another (a SL item is translated by a

related term in TL), reversal of terms, negation of the opposite (a SL passage is

rendered by its opposite in TL in terms of positiveness/negativeness), active to

passive and vice versa, space for time, exchange of intervals for limits (SL time

and space expressions are translated into fixed points in TL) and change of

symbol (exchange of images in translating fixed metaphors).

Of the remaining oblique procedures, equivalence entails rendering a

given text through different stylistic and structural means in the TL. Equivalence

is best represented by idioms, clichés and proverbs, the literal translation of

which is often impossible. To retain the original sense, the translator must

significantly alter the form in accordance with TL conventions, since most

equivalences are already established within the TC. Finally, adaptation is

reserved for cases, where a given SC concept, represented by a SL item is

unknown within the TC/TL; it falls on the translator to create a new message

which is as close to an equivalent of the original meaning as possible; the

procedure is therefore regarded as “a special kind of equivalence, a situational

equivalence.” The authors strongly advocate the use of adaptations as opposed to

calques, which often render the text ambiguous.

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1.3.3 Newmark’s procedures

A much expanded classification of translation procedures was put forward by

Peter Newmark in his A Textbook of Translation (1988a). Literal translation is

defined as the most important procedure and a basic means of translation, its

application ranging from single words to whole sentences. Since it is regarded to

be mechanical, unnatural and “not clever” (Newmark 1998a: 75), literal

translation is often abandoned for other procedures, even if they are not required

and justified. Transference, “the process of transferring a SL word to a TL text as

a translation procedure,” corresponds to Vinay and Darbelnet’s borrowing. This

procedure is applicable in translation of a wide variety of names and terms, e.g.

brand names, geographical and topological names, names of periodicals and

newspaper, and so forth. Related to transference is naturalisation, by its means,

however, a given word is not only borrowed, but also adapted (both in terms of

pronunciation and morphology) into the TL. The use of cultural equivalent

procedure involves rendering a given cultural SL item by its TL cultural

counterpart. Though such equivalents are often not accurate, they are nonetheless

useful as means of disambiguation, where text receivers are ignorant of relevant

SC items. Functional equivalent is regarded as a common procedure, applied

chiefly to cultural words, involving the use of TL lexical items free of cultural

bias. As a result, the SL word is neutralised and generalised. By means of

descriptive equivalent procedure, a given SL word is translated through its

function and description in the TL. Synonymy is used chiefly where a precise

equivalent to a SL word in a context does not exist; the use of synonymy is

sanctioned if literal translation is not possible and the word in question is not

important enough to be subjected to other, more time consuming procedures.

Through-translation refers closely to Vinay and Dabelnet’s calque; it concerns

mostly the literal translation of common collocations, names of organisations and

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some popular phrases. Ideally, through-translation should not be initiated by the

translator and should be used only if they are already accepted into the TL.

Shifts or transpositions, as defined earlier by Vinay and Darbelnet,

involve a change of SL grammar while translating to the TL. The change can

concern the number of a given lexical item, the grammatical structure (when the

SL structure does not exist in TL) or the “natural usage” of a given item within

the TL (transposition is necessary when literal translation produces an

“unnatural” passage). Under the term modulation Newmark recognises a

collection of sub-procedures, as put forward by Vinay and Darbelnet. Rather than

a definition, Newmark offers a discussion on validity of terminology used by

aforementioned authors, quoting their complete classification of modulations.

Recognised translation is a common translation procedure, by means of which

mainly SL institutional terms are rendered by their official and generally

accepted TL counterparts, possibly accompanied by an explanatory gloss.

Translation label is used chiefly with new institutional terms, this procedure

allows for introduction of provisional translation, possibly in inverted commas.

By means of compensation, the loss of meaning which occurred during

translation is compensated elsewhere in the same, or neighbouring sentence.

Componential analysis is a rather time-consuming procedure, reserved for

vocabulary items of much importance in the text and which do not have a clear

one-to-one equivalent in the TL. Componential analysis involves the study of a

given word by breaking it down to its sense components which make it possible

to identify and produce a valid counterpart. The use of this procedure entails in

most cases significant expansion of a given term, thus sacrificing economy for

accuracy. Reduction and expansion are common and largely intuitive procedures

providing means for rendering a SL term by a greater or lesser amount of TL

lexical items. Finally, the use of paraphrase involves extrapolation and

20

expansion of an SL passage, “the minimal recasting of an ambiguous or obscure

sentence, in order to clarify it” (Newmark 1998a: 91).

Moreover, under the term “other procedures” Newmark discusses, and

ultimately dismisses, two procedures coined by Vinay and Darbelnet, namely

equivalence and adaptation. Newmark also recognises that combinations of the

above procedures, the so-called “couplets,” “triplets,” and “quadruplets”

(involving respectively two, three and four procedures), can be brought down to

deal with a single problem. Finally, notes, additions and glosses are discussed

briefly and defined as translation extensions frequently accompanying other

procedures, used for disambiguation.

1.3.4 Vermes’s translation operations applied to proper names

A separate classification, designed specifically to account for operations on

proper names is offered by Albert Péter Vermes in his “Proper Names in

Translation: An Explanatory Attempt” (in Across Languages and Cultures,

Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó 2003).

Vermes recognises four procedures (translation operations) to take place

in translations of proper names. Ttransference refers closely to Newmark’s

classification; by means of this operation, a given SL proper name is to be

borrowed into TL without change of form. Substitution is viewed as applicable to

instances of proper names which have a conventional counterpart in the TL,

representing a translator’s “first and natural choice” (Vermes 2003: 93). It refers

to the notion of literal translation, present in classifications offered by Vinay and

Darbelnet, and Newmark. Additionally, cases of transliteration are also included

under this sub-category. Translation, bearing close resemblance to Newmark’s

procedure of synonymy, involves rendering a given proper name “by a TL

expression which gives rise to the same, or approximately the same, analytic

implications in the target text as the original name did in the source text”

21

(Vermes 2003: 94). Modification entails the use of a significantly altered TL

counterpart to a SL proper name; it is possible to draw comparison between

Vermes’s modification and Vinay and Darbelnet’s collection of procedures under

the modulation sub-category.

1.3.5 Consolidated taxonomy of lexical procedures, as proposed by Kwieciński

In his Disturbing Strangeness (2001) Kwieciński attempted at a consolidated

classification of translation procedures based on insights from several

acknowledged theoretical frameworks. The procedures are arranged from the

most foreignising to the most domesticating.

Foreignising procedures include seven operations. Transference of images

or sound refers to cases where a given SC-specific sound or image is transferred

without change in the target version. It is, consequently, reserved for research

concerning modern media such as television or radio. Borrowing refers closely to

Vinay and Darbelnet’s notion of borrowing, as well as Newmark’s category of

transference. It concerns cases where both free (ad hoc) and recently established

borrowings are introduced into the TT. Distancing devices may be employed,

including the use of inverted commas and qualifiers (“the so-called”); moreover,

the borrowings may be morphologically, phonologically and orthographically

adapted into the TT. The definition of calque, coinage or semantic extension (or

rather a collection of procedures) is consistent with Vinay and Darbelnet’s notion

of calque, as well as Newmark’s through-translation. In a fashion similar to that

of the above category, the procedures are clearly subdivided to involve both the

cases of ad hoc and recent renderings. This subcategory deals with lexical items

formed either on the basis of SL (e.g. Native Americans Rdzenni

Amerykanie) or TL structures (e.g. registered partnership spółka jawna).

The remaining foreignising procedures are combinations of operations.

The borrowing + calque/coinage or semantic extension category is consistent

22

with Newmark’s notion of couplets: it represents two foreignising procedures,

borrowing and calque, brought down to deal with a single problem. By means of

the borrowing + normalisation (gloss) combination, a borrowed SL item is

accompanied by a normalising, explanatory gloss. In the case of

calque/coinage/extension + normalisation (gloss) couplet, the normalising,

explanatory gloss accompanies an item calqued into the TT. Other combinations:

couplets, triplets, quadruplets, as per Newmark’s definition, deal with

combinations of two, three of four procedures, including, but not limited to, cases

of borrowing, calque and normalisation, borrowing, calque, substitution, and

borrowing or calque, normalisation and substitution.

The recognised exoticism procedure, which is a borderline case within the

spectrum of foreignisation and domestication, entails rendering of a given

source-culture (SC) item through the use of already existing and established

official target-culture (TC) counterpart. As a result, the rendered item is clearly

recognised by TC members as an SC-specific concept, but is nevertheless

intelligible as such (e.g. House of Commons Izba Gmin). The category also

includes instances of limited normalisation, by means of which a given item is

translated by another SC item which is more likely to be recoverable by the TC

member. Such items are often considerably expanded when compared to the

original passage (e.g. Super Bowl finały futbolu amerykańskiego).

Domesticating procedures are chiefly represented by the normalisation

category, which is a collection of operations similar to the modulation subclass

suggested by Vinay and Darbelnet, dealing with shifts in style and semantics.

Normalisation is subdivided into the following sub-procedures: repackaging

(diffusion or condensation), which involves rendering a SL item by a

significantly expanded (diffusion) or compressed (condensation) TL equivalent,

generalisation (a SL term is translated by a relevant, but more general TL term),

specification (a SL term is translated by a relevant, but more detailed TL term),

23

modification (concerning cases of shifts in style, semantics or syntax an item

undergoes during translation) and mutation, by means of which the SL item is

rendered in such a way that its original form and meaning is irrecoverable.

Deletion is regarded as a domesticating procedure involving complete

omission of the SL item or items. Covert cultural substitution or covert

acculturation entail rendering of SC culture-specific concepts by their TC-

specific equivalents in such a way that the translational manipulation is not

visible to the TC receiver; covert acculturation, moreover, involves the use of a

TC-specific item to substitute a more generalised, transcultural structure

belonging to SL. Overt cultural substitution or overt acculturation, on the other

hand, introduce TC-specific items recognised as clearly not representatives of the

SC, hence the transparency of translation is compromised. A similarly TC-

manifest item is introduced through overt acculturation in substitution of a more

generalised, transcultural SL structure.

Having provided the necessary theoretical background, the present

dissertation, with reference to the subject matter, will offer a brief outline of the

science fiction literary genre, along with its definitions and best-known

representatives. Chapter 2 will, moreover, present in detail George Lucas’s Star

Wars and conclude with an overview of the Polish science fiction tradition.

Since the present thesis aims at the identification of the dominant

translation strategy within contemporary literature, it is essential for the study to

concentrate on popular and recent titles available. There is little doubt to the fact

that science fiction novels are currently among most eagerly read books. The

genre itself is relatively young and, therefore, one can expect translations of SF

to be characterised by a certain degree of fluency, since conventions governing

its renditions are not yet set. Therefore, SF represents an ideal research object in

general; through the results of the study on its most popular representative, one

24

could potentially provide data applicable globally to current trends in

translations.

25

Chapter 2: The science fiction genre and Star Wars as its

representative

This chapter aims at presenting the Star Wars novels as enclosed within

theoretical boundaries of the science fiction genre. In order to set up a relevant

literary background, the chapter will primarily concentrate on the history of

science fiction and provide information on most influential writers of the genre.

Subsequent subchapters will focus on the science fantasy subgenre and Star Wars

as its best known representative. The concluding subchapter will deal with the

Polish science fiction literary tradition and the appearance of foreign SF titles on

the Polish market.

2.1 Introduction to science-fiction

Science fiction is generally regarded as largely successful as a literary genre

during the second half of the twentieth century. It is commonly considered to be

an American art form, though its origins lie outside the United States (Aldiss

1988: 14). Its rise to prominence was prompted by the marvels of the Industrial

Revolution, and thus science fiction has been termed the fiction of a

technological age.

All attempts at setting the boundaries of science fiction involve

generalisations. As Aldiss (1988: 15) puts it, “the time never existed when

‘science fiction’ was a homogeneous commodity.” The difficulty in providing a

fixed definition of science fiction lies in the uncanny flexibility of the genre,

which continuously spawns new designs, therefore making it possible for “SF”

(see 2.1.1.1) literature to be conventional and innovative at one and the same

time.

26

It is important to first look at the definitions provided by acknowledged experts

in the study of science fiction. James Gunn (1985, 1 [1977, 1]), an established

scholar on the subject of SF, offers the following definition:

Science fiction jest gałęzią literatury, która zajmuje się opisem wpływu zmian

na ludzi mieszkających w świecie realnym, obserwowanym na tle przeszłości,

przyszłości lub też z odległości. Często opowiada o zmianach zachodzących w

świecie nauki lub techniki, a zazwyczaj dotyczy spraw, których znaczenie

względne jest większe niż znaczenie jednostki czy społeczeństwa;

niebezpieczeństwo często tu zagraża cywilizacji lub całej rasie. [Science fiction

is a branch of literature, which deals with describing the influence of changes

on people living in the real world, observed against a past or future background,

or from a distance. It often speaks about changes taking place in the world of

science and technology, and it frequently concerns itself with issues, the relative

meaning of which is greater than the meaning of an individual or of a society;

the danger here befalls often the whole civilization or race.] (Gunn 1985, 1: 9;

transl. ŁM)

Brian Aldiss, a science fiction novelist himself, puts forward a well-known

definition, stating that “science fiction is the search for a definition of mankind

and his status in the universe which will stand in our advanced but confused state

of knowledge (science), and is characteristically cast in the Gothic or post-Gothic

mode.” It is essential to note that Aldiss recognises science fiction as a mode of

writing, rather than a genre, to account for its wide potential, flexibility and

complexity. He also stresses the roots of SF are found in the Gothic (1988: 21), a

viewpoint which has only recently received appreciation.

Common definitions of science fiction, though varied to a degree, give

similar characteristics of the genre. It is agreed that SF explores possible

consequences of changes (improbable or even impossible) in basic conditions of

27

human existence. The presence of a technological invention, acting as a trigger

for the transformation, is not necessary, however, the reality (biological or

physical) is altered profoundly. Hence the popular SF themes of time travel,

extraterrestrial invasion, or ecological catastrophe (Baldick 1991: 200). It is the

effect of such phenomena on human (or intelligent non-human) beings that is of

key importance in SF literature. The influence of changes may be based on

scientific facts that exist within the contemporary world or may involve

farfetched notions which contradict the principles of science (Britannica Volume

10: 552).

The rendition found in A Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary

Theory dwells heavily upon the multitude of themes science fiction can

undertake:

A science fiction story is a narrative (usually in prose) of short story, novella, or

novel length. As to what it is about, this is not easily classifiable. Such stories

are about an amazing variety of things, topics, ideas. The include trips to other

worlds, quests, the exploration of space, visits to other planets and

interplanetary warfare. Some SF stories are concerned with utopia and utopist

visions, and also with dystopia. Others are set in the future but are not utopian.

Still others are set in the past. Many have a contemporary setting which is

somehow influenced by the arrival or invasion of alien beings… or by some

invention which profoundly alters normality. They are also concerned with

technological change and development, with scientific experiment, with social,

climatic, geological and ecological change. Some are concerned with

supernatural forces and agencies. They are often fantastic, though they may be

rooted in reality. They stretch the imagination.(Cuddon 1998: 790-800)

The above definition raises the issue of the fantastic within science fiction.

Indeed, there have been equally many attempts at drawing a fixed line between

fantasy and SF; unfortunately, such separation is impossible in most cases, since

28

it is agreed that both notions are part of fantasy in a general sense (Aldiss 1988:

30). Generally however, it is accepted, for the sake of easier classification, that

fantasy as a genre leans more towards the mythical element than towards an

assumed realism (Aldiss 1988: 31), whereas SF emphasises the scientific quality

as essential for the plot:

Plausibility based on science is a requisite, so that such precursors of the

genre as Mary Shelley’s Gothic novel Frankenstein, or the Modern Prometheus

(1818) and Robert Louis Stevenson’s Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde

(1886) are science fiction, whereas Bram Stroker’s Dracula (1897) based as it is

purely on the supernatural, is not. (Britannica Volume 10: 552)

Prior to the presentation of a brief historical background of science fiction,

the present chapter will provide definitions of key concepts concerned with SF,

which are essential for the present thesis.

2.1.1 Key terminology concerned with science fiction

2.1.1.1 Science fiction, SF, sci-fi, speculative fiction, scientifiction, scientific

romance

The term “science fiction”, popularised in the 1930s in Hugo Gernsback’s

magazine Science Wonder Stories, sought to replace “scientific romance”, an

already existing name, which originated in the UK and was used to describe

mainly the works of H.G. Wells (Clute and Nicholls 1999: 1076). This shift in

terminology also marked a transition in style: typical scientific romance works

are characterized by “long evolutionary perspectives; by an absence of much

sense of the frontier and a scarcity of the kind of pulp-magazine-derived hero

who is designed to penetrate any frontier available; and in general by a tone

moderately less hopeful about the future than that typical of genre sf until recent

decades” (Clute & Nicholls 1999: 1076). In the late 1940s, the US SF style

became dominant, displacing the preceding term and mode of writing, which

29

sparked accusations of transforming, vulgarising and changing beyond

recognition the European SF heritage (Aldiss 1988: 252).

What is interesting, prior to coining “science fiction”, Gernsback used the

term “scientifiction”, a contraction of “scientific fiction” (Clute & Nicholls 1999:

1076). The term never gained popularity and has since achieved a rather

derogatory colouring to describe mainly the awkward and technology-oriented

stories published by Gernsback.

Science fiction adopted the acronym “SF” which is largely accepted as the

only correct abbreviation. An alternative form, “sci-fi” is generally regarded as a

“down-market appellation” (Aldiss 1988: 23) and is frowned upon by science

fiction devotees (Baldick 1999: 200). “SF” can equally well be said to represent

the “speculative fiction” and “science fantasy” subgenres (see 1.1.2.4), which

acknowledges the fact that many SF titles have much in common with fantasy.

2.1.1.2 Pulp SF

‘Pulp SF’ is a somewhat derogatory name for the SF published in pulp

magazines. Called so because of the poor quality of the paper, the “pulps”

appeared thanks to the magazine-publishing revolution of the 1880s which made

it possible to print cheap magazines on low quality paper manufactured from

chemically treated wood pulp. The period of the greatest popularity of pulps, and

SF pulps in particular, is attributed to the late 1930s (Clute and Nicholls 1999:

979). Magazines such as Amazing Stories quickly attracted devoted readers, who

shared opinions and addresses in the letters’ column, which in turn sparked the

beginnings of the fandom movement.

2.1.1.3 Fandom, fanzine and conventions

Clute (1999: 403) defines “fandom” as “a collection of people with a common

background in sf and a common interest in communication, whether through

30

discussion, chatter, correspondence, or fanzine publishing.” Formed, by readers

and, later, writers of SF, fandom counted no more than 500 people between the

1920s and 1950s, whereas a decade later, the figure increased to over 10,000

(Clute and Nicholls 1999: 403).

Fanzines, amateur magazines produced by SF fans and readers of

contemporary professional SF magazines, vary greatly in form and content.

Usually photocopied or printed, fanzines contain reviews, discussions, fandom-

specific topics, and even amateur fiction (Clute and Nicholls 1999: 414).

Established in the early 1930s (The Planet, The Comet), they have since became

increasingly popular and contributed largely to cementing the SF community.

Gatherings of SF fans, so-called “conventions” (or “cons”), are a principle

feature of SF fandom. The first formally planned SF convention took place in

Leeds, UK, in 1937. A typical SF convention programme features discussions,

presentations, even masquerades and banquets (Clute and Nicholls 1999: 261).

Of great interest are meetings with established writers and critics, contests, and

sessions of storytelling games. The oldest Polish convention, “Polcon”, has been

organised annually since 1985.

The Star Wars fandom developed very rapidly. It quickly spread beyond

the US borders; Star Wars fan clubs are present in all major countries, including

Poland. The Polish Star Wars fandom proper was established in 1997 and its

numbers and prominence have been growing ever since. The first Polish

convention devoted exclusively to Star Wars (“Konkret ‘98”) was organised in

1998 in Warsaw.

2.1.1.4 Subgenres

What is most characteristic of science fiction, being at the same time perhaps

testament to the statement that SF is more a mode of writing than a genre (Aldiss

1988: 571), is the fact that it can spawn a startling number of themes. The works

31

of classics, such as Poe, Verne, and Wells, established tendencies in writing SF

that later developed into subgenres.

Speculative fiction was first defined by R.A. Heinlein, who sought to

describe a mode of writing SF that would extrapolate from known science and

technology to “produce a new situation, a new framework for human action”

(Clute & Nicholls 1999: 1144). The term was later developed by Judith Merril,

who applied it to denote a kind of sociological SF which dwells upon the theme

of social change without putting any great emphasis on science or technology.

Since no generic borderlines have been provided, the term is generally accepted

as including fantasy writing as well. Moreover, it is often used as a substitute for

‘science fiction’ in general, since it is believed to be “more respectable-

sounding” and lacking the pulp associations (Clute & Nicholls 1999: 1145).

The science fantasy subgenre, first coined in the New Worlds magazine,

appeared as a direct response to the new wave in science fiction which was

developed by Moorcock in UK and Herbert and Zelazny in the US. Typical

science fantasy is regarded as a blend of SF and fantasy themes, “usually

colourful and often bizarre, sometimes with elements of horror although never

centrally in the horror genre” (Clute & Nicholls 1999: 1061). Science fantasy

may contain quasirationalised elements of mythology or magic, though these are

not essential for the story, as opposed to the “sword and sorcery” and “heroic

fantasy” subgenres, which are believed to overlap with science fantasy. Mental

(“psionic”) powers and interplanetary travel and adventure are among the most

common science fantasy themes.

2.1.2 Brief historical outline of science-fiction and its best known

representatives

Science fiction, as defined above, came into existence largely through the

influence of the revolutions in science and technology of the eighteenth and

32

nineteenth centuries. The Industrial Revolution, along with research on the laws

of nature, made it possible for early SF to surface (Gunn 1985, 1: 11), evolving

from the Gothic fantasy, the fiction of the age of industry, “somewhere between

romance and realism, as it was between science and myth” (Aldiss 1988: 17).

Originally meant as pure entertainment, the Gothic succeeded in

establishing itself as a genre, dwelling upon current fears, hopes and obsessions

(Aldiss 1988: 17). The Gothic, recognised as an artistic form of reaction to

human cognition of changes, explored the theme of man’s quest for his own

identity, fuelled by a new comprehension of the natural world expressed in

Darwin’s theory of evolution (Gunn 1985, 1: 12). The questions on mankind in

general sparked the creation of the key work in the history of science fiction,

Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein, or the Modern Prometheus (1818).

Frankenstein is regarded as “if not the first science fiction novel, then

certainly the first novel to show what science fiction will become” (Gunn 1985,

1: 183). Conveying Locke’s philosophical arguments and scientific ideas of

Darwin, Humphry Davy, Joseph Priestley, and others (Aldiss 1988: 45), Mary

Shelley succeeded in creating an innovative and completely original work

(Cuddon 1998: 793), dwelling upon the theme of “wildness lurking beneath the

veneer of civilization” (Clute and Nicholls 1999: 511). The horrible experiment,

the nearly ritualistic creation of the nameless monster is only made possible

through research and science surpassing old knowledge of the pre-scientific age.

Frankenstein thus represents a successful introduction of the scientific into

fiction, a trend which “certainly had repercussions in sf which have by no means

died away” (Clute and Nicholls 1999: 511).

The works of Edgar Allan Poe and Nathaniel Hawthorne are also regarded

as influential in the development of science fiction through their attempts at

assimilating science and fiction in a manner similar to Shelley’s influential novel.

Identified by some as the father of SF (Aldiss 1988: 73; Gunn 1985, 1: 221), Poe

33

wrote Mellonta Tauta (1848), which is believed to be the first true tale of the

future (Gunn 1985, 1: 223). This story, set a thousand years forward in time,

conveys an important message; that the future will be different to such a degree

that what is currently present will be forgotten, and that which is not forgotten

will be twisted and blurred. Hawthorne’s The Blithedale Romance (1852), on the

other hand, touches upon the notion of “evil’s permanent existence in a society

dedicated to the idea of infinite progress” (Aldiss 1988: 72), a theme clearly

relevant for SF today.

It was Poe’s writings, translated into French by Baudelaire, which had a

stimulating effect on the works of Jules Verne, which are considered to have

marked the beginning of true modern science fiction (Baldick 1991: 200). Even

though Verne was influenced profoundly by preceding writers, and, in

consequence, the majority of his works were not truly original, the manner in

which he wrote, as well as the subject matter itself, were essential to the

evolution and public acceptance of the new literature, devoted to science and

technology (Gunn 1985, 1: 257). Combining adventure, exploration and the

popularisation of science (Cuddon 1998: 794), Verne became immensely popular

through such works as Voyage au centre de la terre [Journey to the Centre of the

Earth; Clute and Nicholls 1999: 1276] (1864) and Vingt mille lieues sous les

mers [Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea; ibid] (1869). His “les voyages

extraordinaires” (“extraordinary voyages”) established what is now recognised as

classic science fiction themes and he himself has been coined the first true SF

writer (Gunn 1985, 1: 259). Aldiss (1988: 130) comments that “even if Verne did

not invent science fiction, he was the first to succeed at it commercially.”

Man’s progress, celebrated so vividly by Verne, spurred further

development of SF. By the end of the 1890s science fiction was flourishing, a

success attributed chiefly to the works of Herbert George Wells. He was termed

“the great originator of science fictional ideas” (Aldiss 1988: 149), his writings

34

were largely prophetic of the future shape of SF and uncovered many new

themes the genre could explore (Cuddon 1998: 795). He is believed to be the first

writer to look to the past and to the future through the prism of new theories on

evolution. His first book, The Time Machine (1895), an immediate success,

speaks of journeys in time on a scale never considered before. His tales, titled

“The Grisly Folk” (1896) and “A Story of the Stone Age” (1897) are regarded as

precursors of the sub-genre of science fantasy (see 1.1.2.4) (Aldiss 1988: 149).

His War of the Worlds (1898) introduced the now popular theme of alien

invaders, who are exceedingly more powerful than their victims.

The novel has set what is now recognised as “a classic ground plan for an

SF novel” (Aldiss 1988: 152). Wells initially presents the reader with a

recognisable image of his own times and makes use of modern advances in

science (in War of the Worlds, theory on evolution and micro-organisms) as a

background for his story. What is more, however, he encourages criticism of the

society to emerge from the narrative (Aldiss 1988: 152), raising questions and

sparking debates.

Wells’s “scientific romances” (a collective name Wells coined for his

works) were often set on a par with Verne’s works, a tendency which Wells

rejected, stating that his tales do not aim at speaking about possible scenarios, but

are rather means of exercising the imagination in a completely different field

(Gunn 1985, 1: 374). Having surpassed his predecessors, including Verne, Wells

was termed the Shakespeare of science fiction (Aldiss 1988: 166) and his works

brought popularity and distinctness from other genres to the SF. He witnessed the

dropping of an atomic bomb, an event which he had predicted many years earlier.

The turn of the century, a time of breakthroughs in science and

technology, is marked by a change in human thought. Belief in the necessity of

technological development began to shake, affected by the horrors of the First

World War (Gunn 1985, 1: 12, Cuddon 1998: 795). The anxieties of these

35

stressful times found reflection in science fiction; themes of Armageddon and the

establishment of a new race of human beings appeared and achieved great

popularity.

Yet it was through the developments in technology that cheap “pulp”

magazines could appear (see 2.1.2.2). Quickly gaining readership, the new

periodicals offered affordable literary entertainment and it was not long before

they turned their attention to science fiction.

Contrary to the scientific romances of H.G. Wells, early American pulp

science fiction appealed to simpler audiences (Aldiss 1988: 217). The period

between the mid-1920s and the late 1930s was dominated by Hugo Gernsback’s

(1894-1967) vision of SF. He is popularly believed (Gunn 1985, 1: 17) to be the

founder of the first SF magazine, Amazing Stories (1926), later continued as

Science Wonder Stories (1929). Whether this is the case is open to debate; there

are examples of European SF magazines published as early as 1886 and

continuing to 1921 (Aldiss 1988: 251). Undoubtedly however, Gernsback had a

profound influence on the shape of science fiction. It is commonly agreed that

Gernsback gave shape to the whole SF magazine industry, introducing the figure

of a demanding editor and enforcing fixed criteria for SF stories that were to be

published. He was also the first to use the name “science fiction” (Science

Wonder Stories, 1929) to specify the literature he intends to publish (Gunn 1986,

2: 19 [1977, 2]). Aldiss (1988: 791), however, argues that the term itself was first

used in 1851, in William Wilson’s A Little Earnest Book upon a Great Old

Subject.

Gernsback’s magazine attracted new writers, but it was not until the late

1930’s that pulp SF gradually became more intellectual and sophisticated

(Cuddon 1998: 797). This tendency is attributed to John W. Campbell, who first

edited and later took over, in 1937, the magazine Astounding. A proficient and

ambitious editor, Campbell encouraged and supported his writers, suggesting

36

they should develop their ideas where necessary and give them much more

thought (Aldiss 1988: 268). A fairly successful writer himself, Campbell is said

to have influenced many young writers, Arthur C. Clarke among them. His best

known short story, “Twilight” (1934), imitating to a degree Wells’s The Time

Machine, brought a refreshing new alternative to SF “trash” stories published in

the “pulps” (Aldiss 1988: 267; see 1.1.2.2). This experience later enabled him to

create a “thought-provoking and imagination-stirring” (Aldiss 1988: 275)

atmosphere and the much needed intellectual revival to magazine SF (Gunn

1986, 2: 22). Campbell’s influence, and the influence of the writers to whom he

passed his ideas, have spurred the coming about of what we today call the

Golden Age of science fiction” (Gunn 1986, 2: 22).

Campbell’s Astounding, renamed during 1960s to Analog (Aldiss 1988:

282), recruited writers, whose works are now considered unquestionable classics

of the genre, Isaac Asimov and Robert A. Heinlein among them. Asimov, the

most popular figure within the world of science fiction for nearly fifty years, is

best known for his Foundation trilogy, first published in Astounding between

May 1942 and January 1950 (Aldiss 1988: 330). Asimov’s novels The Caves of

Steel (1954) and The Naked Sun (1957) were the first to set ground for future SF

detective stories. Famous for quoting his three laws of robotics, Asimov did

away with the stereotype of “slavering metallic hordes … which had been a

boringly predominant feature of the magazines” (Aldiss 1988: 270) and

introduced the new ideas in his stories, later collected in I, Robot (1950):

(1) a robot may not injure a human being or, through inaction, allow a human

being to come to harm; (2) a robot must obey the orders given it by human

beings except where such orders would conflict with the First Law; (3) a robot

must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not conflict with

the First or Second Law. (Clute & Nicholls 1999: 1018)

37

For his novel The Gods Themselves (1972), he received the Science Fiction

Achievement Award (the “Hugo”) (Gunn 1986, 2: 438).

Both Asimov and Heinlein brought “literary law and order” into science

fiction magazines (Aldiss 1988: 270). Heinlein’s intelligent and educated stories

were published in Astounding as early as 1941, forming the basis for what he

later called “Future History” stories. His novels were among the first SF titles to

be published by the more established publishing houses (Gunn 1986, 2: 472). A

fragment of his Rocketship Gallileo (1947), published originally by Scribner’s,

was filmed under the title Destination Moon (1950), a venture which is believed

to have sparked the new wave of SF movies of the 1950s (Gunn 1986, 2: 472).

His Stranger in a Strange Land (1961) is commonly recognised to be the first SF

bestseller, almost immediately achieving popularity far beyond the established

circle of SF readers (Gunn 1986, 2: 472). Along with Frank Herbert’s Dune

(1965), Stranger in a Strange Land marked a new turn in American SF literature,

which started to evolve beyond the magazine format to achieve recognition and

commercial success.

This so-called new wave in science fiction was nourished by the influence

of Michael Moorcock and the UK SF New Worlds magazine, which Moorcock

took over in 1964 (Cuddon 1998: 799). Moorcock’s works (The Final

Programme, 1965-1966), introducing fantasy and heroism to the SF formula

were regarded as “a welcome breadth to the genre” (Clute & Nicholls 1999:

1195). This tendency is seen developed in the works of Roger Zelazny, whose

tales (“He Who Shapes”, 1965) are a blend of science fiction and fantasy (Gunn

1987, 3: 541 [1979, 3]). The fantastic element within SF was further reinforced

in the already mentioned Dune by Herbert, who added elements of mythology

(sacred religious practices of the Fremen, the coming of Muad'Dib, the Prophet)

and provided detailed social and historical background for the plot (Gunn 1988,

4: 145 [1982, 4]). Through the use of such devices, Herbert fostered the creation

38

of what would later be known as the science fantasy and sword and sorcery (see

1.1.2.4) subgenres of the science fiction.

Dune inspired George Lucas to create Star Wars (1977), the “space opera

in the grand manner” (Aldiss 1988: 339), one of the most influential and

commercially successful titles spawned by the new wave, and the best-known

representative of science fantasy.

2.2 Star Wars as a representative of science fiction

Luke Skywalker lives and works on his uncle's farm on the remote planet of

Tatooine. Bored beyond belief, he yearns for adventures out among the stars,

adventures that would take him beyond the farthest galaxies to distant and alien

worlds. But Luke gets more than he bargains for when he intercepts a cryptic

message from a beautiful princess held captive by a dark and powerful warlord.

Luke doesn't know who she is, but he knows he has to save her - and soon,

because time is running out. Armed only with courage and the lightsaber that

was his father's, Luke is catapulted into the middle of the most savage space war

ever... and heads straight for a desperate encounter on the enemy battle station

known as the Death Star. (George Lucas Star Wars, 1976 Sphere Books)

Without a doubt, Star Wars remains one of the most influential and most

financially successful SF titles to date. Star Wars is a representative of the new

wave in science fiction, which started with Moorecock’s New Worlds magazine,

and the works of Herbert and Zelazny in the US and the advent of science

fantasy. The late 1960s and early 1970s were a period of significant development

in SF; “SF novels reached the bestseller lists, … SF conventions became big

business … [and] everyone went to SF movies” (Aldiss 1988: 339). It was

largely the success of 2001 (1968), a movie directed by Stanley Kubrick and

based on Arthur C. Clarke’s novel, which paved the way for the future SF

cinema.

39

Star Wars presents a conflict between the forces of Good and Evil, much

in the tradition of “pulp” SF magazines:

Young Luke Skywalker … becomes involved in a mission to rescue a princess

… from the evil head of a decadent Galactic Empire. The Empire’s military

headquarters is the Death Star, the size of a small moon and capable of

destroying whole planets. With the help of an old man who possesses

supernatural powers … a human mercenary … and his alien sidekick … Luke

rescues the princess and secures information that enables a group of rebel

fighters to destroy the Death Star” (Clute & Nicholls 1999: 1160)

The movie script was the basis for the book adaptation of Star Wars. Clute

(1999: 1160) argues that the novel version attributed officially to George Lucas,

was actually written by Alan Dean Foster. Aldiss agrees on the subject (1988:

468), adding that Foster’s name is found on the covers of adaptations of other SF

movies of that time (Dark Star, 1974; Alien, 1979; The Black Hole, 1979).

Sequels to Star Wars (retitled A New Hope in 1981), are The Empire Strikes Back

(1980) and Return of the Jedi (1984), adopted for the book format by Donald F.

Glut and James Kahn respectively. George Lucas has also written and directed

the so-called “prequels” to the original trilogy, which describe events prior to the

plot of A New Hope: The Phantom Menace (1999), Attack of the Clones (2002),

and Revenge of the Sith (2005).

2.2.1 Influences on Star Wars

Witold Jabłoński, novelist and critic, commented on the subject of George

Lucas’s Star Wars in an interview with Dawid Brykalski:

[George Lucas] Uczynił rzecz bez precedensu: posługując się stylistyką SF

przesycił ją klasycznymi, archetypicznymi motywami, takimi jak dzielny

prostaczek, uwięziona księżniczka, czarny rycerz, tajemniczy pustelnik, czy też

40

rozbójnik o złotym sercu. Stworzył ponadczasową baśń, w której nie brak

całkiem aktualnych odniesień...[What George Lucas did was without

precedence: making use of SF stylistics, he enriched it with classical, archetypal

motifs, such as a brave, straightforward youngster, a princess held prisoner, a

black knight, a mysterious hermit, or the kind-hearted rogue. He created a

timeless fairy-tale, which is not without up-to-date references...](“Jestem z

natury poganinem”; http://www.ksiazka.net.pl; transl. ŁM)

Similarly, Clute (1999: 1160) points out that Lucas “draws upon comics strips,

old serials, Westerns, James Bond stories, The Wizard of Oz, Snow White, Errol

Flynn swashbucklers and movies about WWII.” Lucas is believed to have been

inspired by E.E. Smith’s Gray Lensman, Harry Harrison’s Deathworld and Frank

Herbert’s Dune, works which influenced heavily the shape of Star Wars (Aldiss

1988: 341). Moreover, Oliver Denken in his Gwiezdne wojny – jak powstawała

kosmiczna trylogia (1997: 50 [Star Wars – Die Film 1996]) observes that Alex

Raymond’s Flash Gordon stories and Edgar Rice Burrough’s SF novels (John

Carter of Mars) had a profound impact on Lucas’s vision of Star Wars.

In an interview for the DVD edition (2004) of the classic Star Wars

trilogy, Lucas sheds new light on the subject of inspirations for his work. Beside

acknowledging some of the aforementioned works, he also points to an early SF

movie Metropolis (1926) as influential in creating his humanoid robot C3PO.

More importantly, however, he quotes Joseph Campbell’s analysis of archetypes

(The Hero with a Thousand Faces) as critical in the development of character

and plot elements of Star Wars.

Campbell made use of the idea of archetypes, coined by Carl Jung, as the

basis for analysing the underlying structure behind religion and myth. In his The

Hero of a Thousand Faces, he argues that common stories from cultures all over

the world share the same pattern, which he called the “Hero's Journey.” In the

aforementioned interview, Lucas agreed that the “Hero's Journey” heavily

41

influenced his Star Wars script and in turn the novel adaptation by Alan Dean

Foster (see Appendix A for a table comparing “Hero’s Journey” with Star Wars).

Therefore, Star Wars is said to have developed from what was an already

established genre on paper (Aldiss 1988: 342). Though some critics claim that

the various elements do not interact together as seamlessly as they should,

Lucas’s creation does provide an enjoyable, even nostalgic entertainment (Clute

and Nicholls 1999: 1160). Successful and influential, Star Wars has been

translated into over 30 languages, including Polish.

2.3 Science-fiction in Poland

Although critics (Niewiadomski & Smuszkiewicz 1990) point to Michał Dymitri

Krajewski and his Wojciech Zdarzyński życie i przypadki swoje opisujący

[Wojciech Zdarzyński Describing his Life and Adventures; Clute & Nicholls

1999: 944] (1785) as the earliest example of Polish literature conveying science

and the fantastic, it is in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century that the

real roots for Polish science fiction are found (Niewiadomski & Smuszkiewicz

1990: 17). Early examples include the novels by Władysław Umiński (Balonem

do bieguna [To the pole by baloon], 1894; Samolotem dookoła świata [Around

the world by airplane], 1911), inspired largely by Verne’s “voyages

extraordinaires”, and popularizing current scientific achievements.

However, it is Umiński’s contemporary, Jerzy Żuławski, who is believed

to be the father of Polish science fiction. His “lunar trilogy” (Na srebrnym globie

[On Silver Globe; Clute and Nicholls 1999: 1370], 1903; Zwycięzca [The Victor;

ibid], 1910; Stara Ziemia [Old Earth; ibid], 1911) was immensely popular and

profoundly influenced the shape of future Polish SF works (Niewiadomski &

Smuszkiewicz 1990). Żuławski, poet and essayist, touched upon the most crucial

theme for twentieth century science fiction (Niewiadomski 1987: 11). He shows

42

that knowledge can be destructive if gained for its own sake, and that science is

ultimately powerless against the forces of nature.

Written in the tradition of Wells’s scientific romances (Niewiadomski

1987: 12), Żuławski’s lunar trilogy spurred a further expansion of Polish SF. The

inter-war period, dominated by themes of ‘wonderful invention’ and catastrophe,

saw the appearance of popular and influential novels, such as Mieczysław

Smolarski’s Miasto światłości [The city of light] (1924), Jan Karczewski’s Rok

przestępny [Leap year] (1931) and Antoni Słonimski’s Dwa końce świata [Two

ends of the world] (1937) (Niewiadomski & Smuszkiewicz 1990: 21). Moreover,

at that time there also appeared first pulp stories (Kapitan Mors [Captain Mors]),

the satirical SF works by Bruno Winawer (Promienie FF [FF rays], 1921), and

Stefan Grabiński’s “weird fiction”, influenced largely by Poe (Niewiadomski

1987: 14).

The post-war period in Polish SF is without doubt dominated by Stanisław

Lem, who debuted as a SF novelist with his Astronauci [The Astronauts; Clute &

Nicholls 1999: 711] (1951). Lem’s works remain to this day among the most

eagerly translated novels in modern Polish literature (Niewiadomski 1987: 15).

One of the most significant SF writers of our century and “a distinctive voice in

world literature” (Clute & Nicholls 1999: 711), Lem wrote a wide range of

fiction. His early works (Obłok Magellana [The Magellan Nebula; ibid], 1955)

deal with themes of global destruction brought about by military action, whereas

his Solaris (1961) or Opowieści o pilocie Pirxie [Tales of Pirx the Pilot; ibid]

(1968) dwell upon the subject of humanity’s limitations and strengths (Clute &

Nicholls 1999: 711). Lem’s other works include Doskonała próżnia [Perfect

Vacuum; ibid] (1971), Kongres futorologiczny [The Futurological Congress;

ibid] (1971), and Fiasko [Fiasco; ibid] (1986), the “awkward but ferocious

assault upon human cognitive pretensions” (Clute & Nicholls 1999: 711).

43

The mid 1950s was also when some of Lem’s peers made their debuts,

most notably Krzysztof Boruń and Andrzej Trzepka, authors of a popular SF

trilogy Zagubiona przyszłość [The Lost Future; Clute & Nicholls 1999: 944]

(1954), Proxima (1956) and Kosmiczni bracia [Space brothers] (1959), and

Adam Hollanek with his SF detective novel Zbrodnia wielkiego człowieka [Big

man’s crime] (1960).

A great breakthrough in Polish SF is attributed to Zbigniew Przyrowski,

who introduced SF stories to a poplar youth magazine Młody Technik [Young

technician]. On the pages of Młody Technik appeared the first stories by Janusz

A. Zajdel, who achieved popularity as a political SF writer (Niewiadomski 1987:

16). The mid 1970s, a significant period in the history of Polish SF, saw

increased interest in SF themes, resulting in the creation of the first clubs and

fanzines (Niewiadomski & Smuszkiewicz 1990: 26). By far the most influential

SF magazine, Fantastyka, was founded in 1982 and was edited by Hollanek.

Piotr Krywak, in his article on SF and fantasy “Fantasy i science fiction,

czyli znów o materii mieszaniu” [Fantasy and science fiction, or the mixing of

the subject matter yet again] published in Konspekt (2005), observes a crisis in

Polish SF literature, which started in the late 1970s. Science-fiction, in his

opinion, has since then been slowly superseded by the fantasy genre. Similarly,

Wojciech Kajtoch, in his introduction to Solaris (Życie Literackie 1983), points

out that Polish SF lacks ambition and is likely to fall into second place to it’s

rival. This tendency is largely attributed to fantasy being more marketable (Clute

and Nicholls 1999: 944), but also stresses the fact that gradual disappearance of

censorship caused political SF writing (a dominating mode since the 1960s) to

dissolve.

The resulting “gaping hole” in the Polish SF is currently being filled by

means of mass importation of science fiction literature (Clute & Nicholls 1999:

944). The Polish market is open mainly to western popular fiction (“W krainie

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dreszczowców”; in: Konspekt 2/2005), which achieved great popularity chiefly

through the efforts of private publishers. Star Wars is found among these titles,

initially being published by InterArt, and later by Amber, an independent

publishing house.

The present thesis has thus far explored the theoretical and historical

background of the foreignisation and domestication phenomena, as well as

provided classifications of translation procedures and proper names, with respect

to the subject of the empirical study. Chapter 2 provided a brief outline of science

fiction, including recognised definitions, key terminology and history of the

genre. Following background information on George Lucas’s Star Wars, novel

adaptations of which serving as the object of empirical study, Chapter 2

concluded with brief outline of the Polish science fiction tradition. Having

provided theoretical background for all components of the empirical study, the

thesis will now focus on the research itself.

45

Chapter 3: Source materials and empirical study

The present chapter will provide details as far as materials for empirical study are

concerned, as well as supply information on the research itself. Following is the

study proper. The chapter will conclude with general observations and

conclusions.

3.1 The research

The study of foreignisation and domestication mechanisms provide valuable

insight as far as modern translation tendencies are concerned within a given

language. The relative weakness or strength of a given target culture versus

source culture can be identified to a significant degree through research into

dominant translation strategies, as per the notion of cultural asymmetry (see

1.1.5). Therefore, the study represents an interesting and worthwhile challenge.

In order to identify present tendencies in language treatment, it is essential

to research the literature being currently published, since that is where the

translation tendencies are most transparent. To account for recent changes in the

mechanisms, the science fiction genre has been taken into consideration, as a

fairly new and not yet set genre. Demanding on the part of translator, who often

needs extensive knowledge of specific vocabulary, the SF can potentially be

regarded as a rich area of interest.

Finally, the selection of Star Wars as a representative of the genre is

justified through extreme popularity of the title, especially in view of the recent

screening of Star Wars Episode III: Revenge of the Sith. Book adaptations of

classic Star Wars episodes (IV-VI) have been translated four times (taking into

consideration unofficial and illegal translations), therefore additionally one could

46

potentially be able to trace changes in the translation tendencies spanning over 20

years.

3.1.1 Source materials for empirical study

The thesis will concentrate on the treatment of proper names in subsequent

translations of book adaptations of the classic Star Wars trilogy:

– Star Wars 1977 (Episode IV; renamed to A New Hope in 1981);

– The Empire Strikes Back 1980 (Episode V);

– Return of the Jedi 1983 (Episode VI).

Episodes IV, V and VI have been published collectively in Great Britain as Star

Wars Trilogy. The present thesis will use the 2005 version of this collected

edition.

To provide sufficient material for the empirical study, several translations

(sets) of the source text will be taken into consideration. Set 1 features unofficial

translations of episodes IV, V and VI carried out by fan-clubs in Warszawa and

Łódź in the 1980s. These are considered extremely rare and their precise origin

or date of publication is unknown:

– Wojny gwiazd [Star Wars](translated by Andrzej Wroblewski);

– Imperium kontratakuje [The Empire Strikes Back](translator unknown);

– Powrót Jedi [Return of the Jedi](translated by W. Wojtasiewicz).

Set 2 is comprised of unofficial translations of episodes IV and V appearing in

Fikcje, a fanzine (see Chapter 2.1.1) published by Śląski Klub Fantastyki

between 1970-1985. Issues of Fikcje are believed to be very rare and generally

unavailable:

– Gwiezdne wojny (in: Fikcje 1986–1988, translated by Piotr W. Cholewa);

47

– Imperium kontratakuje (in: Fikcje 1988, translated by Agnieszka

Sylwanowicz).

Novels collected in set 3 were published by InterArt in the 1990s. They are

regarded as uncommon, available exclusively through antiquary bookshops.

These were the first official translations of the original Star Wars trilogy:

– Gwiezdne wojny (InterArt 1990, translated by Piotr W. Cholewa);

– Imperium kontratakuje (InterArt 1991, translated by Agnieszka

Sylwanowicz);

– Powrót Jedi (InterArt 1992, translated by Piotr W. Cholewa).

Set 4 features novels published by Amber between 1998 and 1999 (two editions).

These are the most common translations of the classic Star Wars trilogy available

today:

– Nowa nadzieja [A New Hope] (Amber 1998, translated by Piotr W.

Cholewa);

– Imperium kontratakuje (Amber 1999, translated by Agnieszka

Sylwanowicz);

– Powrót Jedi (Amber 1999, translated by Piotr W. Cholewa).

Since there have been no attempts at re-publishing the original trilogy presently,

set 5 consists of recent titles from the Star Wars book series published in Poland

by Amber:

– Zemsta Sithów [Revenge of the Sith] (Amber 2005, translated by Maciej

Szymański);

– Ryzyko Wedge’a [Wedge’s Gamble] (Amber 2002, translated by

Katarzyna Laszkiewicz);

48

– Jednocząca Moc [The Unifying Force] (Amber 2006, translated by

Andrzej Syrzycki);

– Atak klonów [Attack of the Clones] (Amber 2002, translated by Maciej

Szymański);

– X-Wingi: Eskadra Łotrów [X-Wing: Rogue Squadron] (Amber 2001,

translated by Maciej Szymański).

3.1.2 Applied methodology

Based on theories concerning the classification of proper names (see Chapter 1),

the present thesis will provide its own division into the following subcategories:

1) locations – this category includes all proper names taken under study,

which refer to geographical locations (cities, planets, etc.);

2) characters – collected under this term are selected names of

characters,including representatives of artificial intelligence (droids);

3) vehicles and starships – this category includes names of selected vehicles

and starships; the names refer to either individual machines or classes of

machines;

4) institutions and organisations – included under this term are names which

refer to different institutions and organisations, present in the world of

Star Wars;

5) other – this category accounts for names which do not fall into any above

categories.

Original lexical items were compared with five sets of Star Wars literature

translated into Polish, since early 1980s until most recent, 2006 titles (see 3.1.1).

In most cases this results in five renditions of a given word; in some instances

however, providing the counterpart was not possible. This is especially true for

49

Set Two (Return of the Jedi was not translated in Fikcje) and Set Five (not all

original vocabulary items were found within the titles researched). Where a

rendering was not available, it is signalled through the abbreviation “n/a.”

On the whole, the study was conducted on a total of 50 lexical items,

grouped into aforementioned categories. However, due to space constraints, the

study of only 25 items will be presented in detail, while a complete list is

available in Appendix B.

Each rendition is accompanied by an identification of a translation

procedure employed, based on Kwieciński’s consolidated taxonomy (see 1.3.5).

Through the exploration of the degree of exoticism or assimilation the study of

procedures allow, an overall measurement in terms of foreignisation and

domestication will be supplied, followed by commentary where applicable.

Author’s comments will also be provided at the end of each category;

furthermore, a general summary shall conclude the study.

3.1.3 Projected results

It is possible to predict certain mechanisms to take place within the study. As per

the notion of cultural symmetry in translation (see 1.1.5), one can assume that a

significant number of exoticisms will occur, since the research deals with transfer

from a superior culture to the inferior. A study carried out by Kwieciński

confirms the above – within the researched body of press articles and TV

comedies, highly exoticising procedures (borrowings and calques) constituted the

majority (54,59% for press and 51,7% for comedies) of cases studied.

Similar results are observed in Vermes’s study of Kurt Vonnegut’s

Slaughterhouse Five and its translation into Hungarian. Again, this is an example

of transfer from a superior to the inferior language system and, consequently,

results of the study reflect the difference in status of SL versus TL – 43% of

50

procedures employed are instances of transference (see 1.3), followed by cases of

substitution (see 1.3), which constitute 31% of all procedures studied.

Vermes’s study, moreover, also introduces the notion of proper names

carrying associations with empty or filled logical entries. In the former

(prototypical) case, Vermes argues, SL proper names are usually transferred into

TL, whereas in the latter option, they tend to be translated (possibly by means of

literal translation).

In view of the above, one can form the following hypothesis: encountered

procedures will largely be of foreignising nature, since the research deals with

transfer from a source language system which is of higher status than the target

system. Additionally, one may hope to encounter all proper names with at least

partially filled logical entry to be translated, rather than transferred.

3.1.4 Abbreviations

The study makes use of the following abbreviations to indicate references to a

specific book: SWT – Star Wars Trilogy (A New Hope, The Empire Strikes Back,

Return of the Jedi), TPM – The Phantom Menace, AOTC – Attack of the Clones,

ROTS – Revenge of the Sith, WG – Wedge’s Gamble, XW – X-Wing Rogue

Squadron, TUF – The Unifying Force.

3.1.5 Subcategory “Locations”:

a) Source text item: The Jundland Wastes

Context: ”The Jundland Wastes are not to be travelled lightly” (SWT: 46)

Renderings:

– set 1: Jundland (procedure: borrowing + normalisation/repackaging,

condensation)

– set 2: pustkowia Jundlandu (procedure: calque)

– set 3: pustkowia Jundlandu (procedure: calque)

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– set 4: pustkowia Jundlandu (procedure: calque)

– set 5: jundlandzkie pustkowia (ROTS; procedure: calque)

Overall bias: foreignising

Comments:

– set 1: of the original phrase, only “Jundland,” a borrowed item, remained

in the Polish rendition, hence borrowing; it is also the only word standing

for the original phrase, hence the classification into a condensation

procedure;

– set 2-5: these are all instances of calque, despite variations in grammatical

category of renderings of “Jundland” (both versions are acceptable).

b) Source text item: Dagobah system

Context: ”We’re going to the Dagobah system” (SWT: 252)

Renderings:

– set 1: system Dagobah (procedure: partially calqued semantic extension)

– set 2: system Dagobah (procedure: partially calqued semantic extension)

– set 3: system Dagobah (procedure: partially calqued semantic extension)

– set 4: układ Dagobah (procedure: partially calqued coinage)

– set 5: n/a (procedure: n/a)

Overall bias: foreignising

Comment:

– set 1-3: since the word “system” also functions in Polish, the rendition

represents only a partial calque;

– set 4: “układ” is the established Polish term for a system o planets, hence

semantic extension in sets 1-3.

52

c) Source text item: Anchorhead

Context: “… aimed the craft toward the distant town of Anchorhead” (SWT: 17)

Renderings:

– set 1: Anchorhead (procedure: borrowing/importation)

– set 2: Anchorhead (procedure: borrowing/importation)

– set 3: Anchorhead (procedure: borrowing/importation)

– set 4: Anchorhead (procedure: borrowing/importation)

– set 5: Anchorhead (WG; procedure: borrowing/importation)

Overall bias: foreignising

Comments: despite a filled logical entry (see Chapter 1), this proper name is

transferred rather than calqued.

d) Source text item: Cloud City

Context: “… they could clearly see the Cloud City of Bespin through the cockpit

window” (SWT: 301)

Renderings:

– set 1: Miasto Chmur (procedure: normalisation/modification, syntactic-

semantic)

– set 2: Miasto Chmur (procedure: normalisation/modification, syntactic-

semantic)

– set 3: Miasto Chmur (procedure: normalisation/modification, syntactic-

semantic)

– set 4: Miasto w Chmurach (procedure: normalisation/modification,

syntactic-semantic)

– set 5: n/a (procedure: n/a)

Overall bias: domesticating

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Comments: all available sets modify the grammatical category of “cloud” (sets 1-

3 change the number to plural, set 4 changes the grammatical category into

adverb), hence the classification as normalisation.

e) Source text item: Sanctuary Moon

Context: “… the stolen shuttle moved smoothly toward the green Sanctuary

Moon” (SWT: 420)

Renderings:

– set 1: księżyc (procedure: normalisation/repackaging, condensation)

– set 2: n/a (procedure: n/a)

– set 3: księżyc-sanktuarium (procedure: calque)

– set 4: księżyc-sanktuarium (procedure: calque)

– set 5: n/a (procedure: n/a)

Overall bias: domesticating foreignising

Comments:

– set 1: “księżyc” remains the only word to stand for the original phrase,

hence its classification as a condensation procedure;

– set 3-4: both original items are literally translated, hence calque.

3.1.5.1 Subcategory summary

Translations of this subcategory are dominated by a foreignising bias. Only one

instance (“Cloud City”) remained of domesticating nature throughout all the sets.

Moreover, “Sanctuary Moon” is an instance of a shift in bias, as the earliest

rendition represented a domesticating approach and the latest available

translations make use of foreignising procedures.

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3.1.6 Subcategory “Characters”

a) Source text item: Artoo Detoo

Context: “… but it certainly didn’t feel distant to Artoo Detoo or See Threepio”

(SWT: 6)

Renderings:

– set 1: Artoo Detoo (procedure: borrowing/importation)

– set 2: Erdwa Dedwa (procedure: calque)

– set 3: Erdwa Dedwa (procedure: calque)

– set 4: R2 D2 (procedure: normalisation/mutation)

– set 5: R2-D2 (TUF; procedure: normalisation/mutation)

Overall bias: foreignising domesticating

Comments:

– set 1: original items are transferred without change, hence borrowing;

– set 2-3: original items are a phonetic representation of the droid’s

designation composed of letters and numbers; the Polish version mimics

this representation by means of literal translation; it is therefore a calque;

– set 4-5: possibly to avoid awkward form, the Polish rendition reverts to

the letters-and-numbers designation; the form changes dramatically, hence

mutation, as the original is irrecoverable.

b) Source text item: See Threepio

Context: “… but it certainly didn’t feel distant to Artoo Detoo or See Threepio”

(SWT: 6)

Renderings:

– set 1: See Threepio (procedure: borrowing/importation)

– set 2: Ce Trzypeo (procedure: calque)

– set 3: Ce Trzypeo (procedure: calque)

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– set 4: C 3PO (procedure: normalisation/mutation)

– set 5: See-Threepio (ROTS; procedure: borrowing/importation)

Overall bias: foreignising domesticating foreignising

Comment:

– set 1: original items are transferred without change, hence borrowing;

– set 2-3: original items are a phonetic representation of the droid’s

designation composed of letters and numbers; the Polish version mimics

this representation by means of literal translation; it is therefore a calque;

– set 4: possibly to avoid awkward form, the Polish rendition reverts to the

letters-and-numbers designation; the form changes dramatically, hence

mutation, as the original is irrecoverable;

– set 5: this set represents a return to the procedure used in the earliest

rendition.

c) Source text item: Luke Skywalker

Context: “Luke Skywalker was twice the age of the ten-year-old vaporator”

(SWT: 16)

Renderings:

– set 1: Luke Skywalker (procedure: borrowing/importation)

– set 2: Luke Skywalker (procedure: borrowing/importation)

– set 3: Luke Skywalker (procedure: borrowing/importation)

– set 4: Luke Skywalker (procedure: borrowing/importation)

– set 5: Luke Skywalker (WG; procedure: borrowing/importation)

Overall bias: foreignising

Comments: despite a filled logical entry (see Chapter 1), this proper name is

transferred rather than calqued.

56

d) Source text item: Too-Onebee

Context: “… perhaps the Wampa Ice Creature had struck him more seriously

than Too-Onebee had diagnosed?” (SWT: 252)

Renderings:

– set 1: Too-Onebee (procedure: borrowing/importation)

– set 2: 2-1B (procedure: normalisation/mutation)

– set 3: 2-1B (procedure: normalisation/mutation)

– set 4: 2-1B (procedure: normalisation/mutation)

– set 5: robot medyczny Too-Onebee (WG; procedure: borrowing +

normalisation, gloss)

Overall bias: foreignising domesticating foreignising

Comment:

– set 1: original items are transferred without change;

– set 2-4: the Polish rendition reverts to the letters-and-numbers designation

of the character; the form changes dramatically, hence mutation, as the

original is irrecoverable;

– set 5: transferred items are accompanied by a naturalising, explanatory

gloss.

e) Source text item: Sith Lord

Context: “Luke began to back away from the advancing Sith Lord.” (SWT: 332)

Renderings:

– set 1: Władca Sith (procedure: partially calqued semantic extension)

– set 2: Lord Sithu (procedure: calque)

– set 3: Lord Sith (procedure: partially calqued coinage)

– set 4: Lord Sithów (procedure: calque)

57

– set 5: Lord Sithów (ROTS; procedure: calque)

Overall bias: foreignising

Comments:

– set 1: since “Sith” is transferred and “Władca” is not a direct equivalent of

“Lord”, this has been classified as a partially calqued semantic extension;

– set 2: since “Sith” is a neologism, it is not immediately recoverable in

terms of meaning, there are different possibilities for rendition; “Sithu” is

a valid form, hence calque;

– set 3: since the word “Lord” also functions in Polish, this has been

classified as a partially calqued coinage;

– set 4-5: since “Sith” is a neologism, it is not immediately recoverable in

terms of meaning, there are different possibilities for rendition; “Sithów”

is a valid form, hence calque.

3.1.6.1 Subcategory summary

Only one out of five items in this subcategory, “Artoo Detoo,” is rendered by

means of a domesticating procedure. It is interesting to note that the earliest

translations carried a foreignising bias, hence this is a rare example of a shift

from foreignisation to domestication. Moreover, the strategies employed in “See

Threepio” and “Too-Onebee” changed twice, the foreignising version being of

the latest set.

3.1.7 Subcategory “Vehicles and starships”

a) Source text item: Rand Ecliptic

Context: “Signed to serve aboard the freighter Rand Ecliptic just last week.”

(SWT: 19)

Renderings:

58

– set 1: Rand Ecliptic (procedure: borrowing/importation)

– set 2: Rand Ecliptic (procedure: borrowing/importation)

– set 3: Rand Ecliptic (procedure: borrowing/importation)

– set 4: Rand Ecliptic (procedure: borrowing/importation)

– set 5: n/a (procedure: n/a)

Overall bias: foreignising

Comments: despite a filled logical entry (see Chapter 1), this proper name is

transferred rather than calqued.

b) Source text item: Millennium Falcon

Context: “I’m Han Solo. Captain of the Millennium Falcon.” (SWT: 90)

Renderings:

– set 1: Millenium Falcon (procedure: partially calqued coinage)

– set 2: Sokół Millenium (procedure: calque)

– set 3: Sokół Millenium (procedure: calque)

– set 4: Sokół Tysiąclecia (procedure: calque)

– set 5: Sokół Millenium (TUF; procedure: calque)

Overall bias: foreignising

Comment:

– set 1: according to Słownik wyrazów obcych (Wydawnictwo Europa,

2001), “millenium” is accepted as a correct spelling in Polish, hence it

cannot be regarded as a case of transference with possible misspelling;

since “Falcon” is transferred on the other hand, set 1 is classified as an

instance of a partially calqued coinage;

– set 2-3: in light of the above comment, these two sets are regarded as

instances of calque;

59

– set 4: original items are transferred literally, hence calque;

– set 5: in light of the above comment, this set is regarded as an instance of

calque.

c) Source text item: TIE fighter

Context: “It’s the short-range TIE fighter” (SWT: 111)

Renderings:

– set 1: ścigacz klasy T (procedure: normalisation/mutation)

– set 2: myśliwiec … klasa T (procedure: normalisation/mutation)

– set 3: myśliwiec … klasa T (procedure: normalisation/mutation)

– set 4: myśliwiec typu TIE (procedure: borrowing +

normalisation/repackaging, diffusion)

– set 5: myśliwiec TIE (WG; procedure: partially calqued coinage)

Overall bias: domesticating foreiginising

Comments:

– set 1: it is impossible to recover the original from the translated items,

hence mutation;

– set 2-3: despite correct translation of “fighter” by “myśliwiec,” the

original passage is nevertheless irrecoverable, hence mutation;

– set 4: the translation of “fighter” and the transference of “TIE” is

accompanied by an enhancing item “typu,” the use of which makes this

set an instance of repackaging, diffusion procedure;

– set 5: since “TIE” is transferred intact, this set is classified as an instance

of a partially calqued coinage.

d) Source text item: X-Wing fighter

60

Context: “There’s not much difference control-wise between an X-wing fighter”

(SWT: 162)

Renderings:

– set 1: X-skrzydłowy myśliwiec (procedure: calque)

– set 2: X-skrzydłowy myśliwiec (procedure: calque)

– set 3: X-skrzydłowy myśliwiec (procedure: calque)

– set 4: myśliwiec typu X (procedure: normalisation/repackaging, diffusion)

– set 5: X-Wing (WG; procedure: borrowing + normalisation/repackaging,

condensation)

Overall bias: foreignising domesticating foreignising

Comments:

– set 1-3: original items are transferred literally, hence calque;

– set 4: the translation is accompanied by an enhancing item “typu,” the use

of which is makes this set an instance of repackaging, diffusion procedure;

since the reference of “X” in the Polish rendition is recoverable, this is not

classified as an instance of mutation procedure;

– set 5: of the original phrase, only “X-Wing” remained in Polish rendition,

hence borrowing; it is also the only word standing for the original phrase,

hence the classification into a condensation procedure.

e) Source text item: The Imperial Walker

Context: “The Imperial Walker docked at the opposite end of the deck…” (SWT:

456)

Renderings:

– set 1: maszyna (procedure: normalisation/generalisation)

– set 2: n/a (procedure: n/a)

– set 3: łazik (procedure: normalisation/generalisation)

61

– set 4: robot (procedure: normalisation/mutation)

– set 5: maszyna krocząca AT-AT (XW; procedure: recognised

exoticism/limited normalisation)

Overall bias: domesticating foreignising/domesticating

Comments:

– set 1: “maszyna” is an instance of a generalising procedure, since “The

Imperial Walker” was indeed a machine;

– set 3: “łazik” roughly refers back to the “Walker” item within the original

passage; it is also a reference to a military vehicle popular in the 1970s; it

can therefore be regarded as an instance of a generalising procedure,

although it is extremely close to mutation;

– set 4: “The Imperial Walker” was certainly not a robot, therefore the

original connotation cannot be recovered from the rendition, hence its

classification as a mutation;

– set 5: the latest set offers a rendition through the use of another, more

recognisable SC-specific term, accompanied by a classifying gloss; this

makes the set an instance of a limited normalisation procedure.

3.1.7.1 Subcategory summary

This subcategory is almost exclusively dominated by foreignising procedures.

There are three instances, namely “TIE fighter”, “X-Wing fighter” and “The

Imperial Walker,” where, at one point, a domesticating strategy was employed.

They all, however, acquired a foreignising counterpart in the latest set, with the

exception of “The Imperial Walker,” which is a borderline case, resulting from

the limited normalisation procedure.

62

3.1.8 Subcategory “Organisations”

a) Source text item: Old Republic

Context: “The Old Republic was the Republic of legend…” (SWT: 3)

Renderings:

– set 1: Stara Republika (procedure: calque)

– set 2: Dawna Republika (procedure: calque)

– set 3: Dawna Republika (procedure: calque)

– set 4: Dawna Republika (procedure: calque)

– set 5: Stara Republika (WG; procedure: calque)

Overall bias: foreignising

Comments: all sets are instances of calque, since both original items are

translated literally into Polish.

b) Source text item: Jedi Knights

Context: “… under the wise rule of the Senate and the protection of the Jedi

Knights…” (SWT: 3)

Renderings:

– set 1: rycerze zwani Jedi (procedure: borrowing +

normalisation/repackaging, diffusion)

– set 2: Rycerze Jedi (procedure: partially calqued coinage)

– set 3: Rycerze Jedi (procedure: partially calqued coinage)

– set 4: rycerze Jedi (procedure: partially calqued coinage)

– set 5: rycerze Jedi (WG; procedure: partially calqued coinage)

Overall bias: foreignising

Comments:

63

– set 1: the translation of “Knights” and the transference of “Jedi” is

accompanied by an enhancing item “zwani,” the use of which makes this

set an instance of repackaging, diffusion procedure;

– set 2-4: since only the “Knights” item is translated, these sets are instances

of a partially calqued coinage.

c) Source text item: Rebel Alliance

Context: “Luke as well as his fellow members of the Rebel Alliance…” (SWT:

195)

Renderings:

– set 1: Związek Rebeliantów (procedure: calque, semantic extension)

– set 2: rebelianckie Przymierze (procedure: calque)

– set 3: rebelianckie Przymierze (procedure: calque)

– set 4: rebeliancki Sojusz (procedure: calque)

– set 5: Sojusz Rebeliantów (WG; procedure: calque)

Overall bias: foreignising

Comments: all sets are instances of calque; additionally, set 1 features a case of

semantic extension, since “Związek” is not typically considered an equivalent of

“Alliance.”

d) Source text item: Imperial Senate

Context: “Well, the Imperial Senate will not sit still for this.” (SWT: 21)

Renderings:

– set 1: Senat Imperium (procedure: normalisation/modification, syntactic-

semantic)

– set 2: Senat Imperium (procedure: normalisation/modification, syntactic-

semantic)

64

– set 3: Senat Imperium (procedure: normalisation/modification, syntactic-

semantic)

– set 4: Senat Imperium (procedure: normalisation/modification, syntactic-

semantic)

– set 5: Imperialny Senat (WG; procedure: calque)

Overall bias: domesticating foreignising

Comments:

– set 1-4: since the grammatical category of “Imperial” (adjective) is

changed in the Polish rendition (noun), these sets are instances of the

syntactic-semantic modification procedure;

– set 5: both original items are literally translated, hence calque.

e) Source text item: sandpeople

Context: “I’m not too concerned about the jawas, but sandpeople…” (SWT: 54)

Renderings:

– set 1: ludzie pustyni (procedure: calque/semantic extension)

– set 2: ludzie piasku (procedure: calque)

– set 3: ludzie piasku (procedure: calque)

– set 4: ludzie piasku (procedure: calque)

– set 5: n/a (procedure: n/a)

Overall bias: foreignising

Comments:

– set 1: since the item “pustyni” is not a typical equivalent of the original

component “sand,” but a vague reference can be traced, it is an instance of

a semantic extension;

65

– set 2-4: the original item is translated literally and adapted into Polish,

hence calque.

3.1.8.1 Subcategory summary

With the exception of “Imperial Senate,” the “Organisation” subcategory is

exclusively dominated by foreignising procedures, in all its sets.

3.1.9 Subcategory “Other”

a) Source text item: Journal of the Whillis

Context: “Journal of the Whillis” (SWT: 4)

Renderings:

– set 1: Dziennik Whillisa (procedure: normalisation/modification,

syntactic-semantic)

– set 2: “Dziennik Whillis” (procedure: partially calqued coinage)

– set 3: “Dziennik Whillis” (procedure: partially calqued coinage)

– set 4: “Dziennik Whillis” (procedure: partially calqued coinage)

– set 5: n/a (procedure: n/a)

Overall bias: domesticating foreignising

Comments:

– set 1: within the fictional world of Star Wars, the Whillis were an ancient

order dedicated to the study of metaphysics; since the Polish rendition

shifted the reference to singular, it is classified as a case of syntactic-

semantic modification;

– set 2-4: since only the “Journal” item is translated, these sets are instances

of a partially calqued coinage.

b) Source text item: krayt dragon

66

Context: “That’s a krayt dragon call!” (SWT: 65)

Renderings:

– set 1: skrzydlaty wąż (procedure: normalisation/mutation)

– set 2: krayt-smok (procedure: partially calqued coinage)

– set 3: krayt-smok (procedure: partially calqued coinage)

– set 4: smok krayt (procedure: partially calqued coinage)

– set 5: smok krayt (ROTS; procedure: partially calqued coinage)

Overall bias: domesticating foreignising

Comments:

– set 1: though fluent and coherent, the Polish rendition does not allow for

recovery of the original phrase; it is an extreme case of mutation, since

even the vaguest connotation with the original items cannot be found;

– set 2-5: though varied in form, these sets are all instances of a partially

calqued coinage, as only one original item is translated.

c) Source text item: sand-flies

Context: “Sand-flies buzzed lazily…” (SWT: 18)

Renderings:

– set 1: pustynne muchy (procedure: calque/semantic extension)

– set 2: piasko-muchy (procedure: calque)

– set 3: piaskomuchy (procedure: calque)

– set 4: piaskomuchy (procedure: calque)

– set 5: n/a (procedure: n/a)

Overall bias: foreignising

Comments:

67

– set 1: since the item “pustynne” is not a typical equivalent of the original

component “sand,” but a vague reference can be traced, it is an instance of

a semantic extension;

– set 2-4: though varied in form, these sets are all instances of a partially

calqued coinage, as only one original item is translated.

d) Source text item: Corellians

Context: “Corellians – pirates, most likely.” (SWT: 84)

Renderings:

– set 1: Korelianie (procedure: calque)

– set 2: Korelianie (procedure: calque)

– set 3: Korelianie (procedure: calque)

– set 4: Korelianie (procedure: calque)

– set 5: z Korelii (WG; procedure: normalisation/modification, syntactic-

semantic)

Overall bias: foreignising domesticating

Comments:

– set 1-4: these sets are all instances of a phonologically adopted calque

(initial C changes to K);

– set 5: this latest set features a shift in grammatical category from noun to

adverb and is therefore classified as an instance of syntactic-semantic

modification.

e) Source text item: Gimer Stick

Context: “Yoda chewed on his Gimer Stick…” (SWT: 282)

Renderings:

68

– set 1: cienka gałązka (procedure: semantic extension +

normalisation/mutation)

– set 2: gałązka gimer (procedure: partially calqued semantic extension)

– set 3: gałązka gimer (procedure: partially calqued semantic extension)

– set 4: gałązka gimer (procedure: partially calqued semantic extension)

– set 5: laska (ROTS; procedure: semantic extension +

normalisation/repackaging, condensation)

Overall bias: foreignising

Comments:

– set 1: since “gałązka” is not a typical equivalent of “stick” and the original

neologism is lost and replaced by an adjective “cienka”, this set is

regarded as a mixture of semantic extension and a mutation procedure;

– set 2-4: since only one original item is translated by a vague equivalent,

these sets are classified as instances of a partially calqued semantic

extension;

– set 5: since “laska” can be vaguely traced back to “stick,” it is classified as

a semantic extension; however, since it stands alone for the whole original

phrase, it is therefore a case of a repackaging, condensation procedure.

3.1.9.1 Subcategory summary

Only one item in this subcategory, namely “Corellians,” is rendered using a

domesticated procedure in the latest set. Other items are either foreignised since

the earliest sets or have adopted a foreignising rendition recently.

3.2 Research summary

There were potentially 125 different renditions to consider (five items in each of

the five categories). Set 2, however, lacked two Polish counterparts and there

69

were also seven renditions not available in set 5 (items were not found in the

selected literature). Therefore, the study features 116 complete renditions,

described in terms of applied procedure.

Research results confirm the initial hypothesis: based on the study of

procedures employed in translations of SL items taken under study, one is able to

form the conclusion that the dominant strategy in translating proper names in

science fiction literature, as visible in the instance of Star Wars, is by far

foreignising. Of the total body of 116 renditions, 65 (56%) were instances of

calque; there were 25 normalisation procedures (22%) identified, along with 19

cases of borrowing (16%), 6 combinations of procedures (5%) and 1 instance of

recognised exoticism, limited normalisation procedure (1%). It stems from the

above that extremely foreignising procedures constitute 72% of all translations

taken into consideration in the study.

Breakdown of procedures from the viewpoint of individual sets reveals

that calque has been the dominant procedure since the earliest translations. The

highest percentage of this procedure is recorded in set 2 (70%), followed closely

by set 3 (68%). Domesticating procedures were at their highest within sets 1 and

4 (28%). Set 5 represents a rapid turn towards foreignisation, showing a rise in

the number of borrowing procedures (22%, as compared to 12% in set 4) and

decrease in the number of instances of normalisation (11%, as compared to 28%

in set 4).

Instances of both covert and overt cultural substitution/acculturation were

not found, possibly due to the lack of lexical items with strong cultural bias.

Moreover, no cases of deletion were found within the procedures studied.

It is interesting to note that nearly all names of locations are translated,

save for one ("Anchorhead") which is transferred. Despite a filled logical entry

borrowing was applied in this instance, which stands in contrast to the theories

put forward by Vermes.

70

Names of characters are largely translated, due to their peculiar form

(phonetic representation of letters-and-numbers designation). One exception,

namely "Luke Skywalker" is borrowed into the Polish version, despite, again, a

filled logical entry.

Starship names are both translated ("Millennium Falcon" “Sokół

Millenium”) and transferred ("Rand Ecliptic"). Names of classes of starships are

largely translated.

All lexical items under the "Organisations" and "Other" subcategories are

translated, with some extreme cases of creativity present ("krayt dragon"

"skrzydlaty wąż").

Details concerning the research are presented in Appendix C.

3.2.1 Brief survey; comparison of results

It is interesting to compare the above results with a survey carried out among

members of the SF fandom in Poland. Using internet forums as means of

gathering response, a group of 50 readers of SF literature were offered a

questionnaire, in which fourteen SL lexical items were presented, along with

three different renditions, of which the most natural and appropriate variant was

to be selected. The items, as well as their Polish counterparts, were taken from

the above study, with the exception of two items (“Imperial Senate” “Senat,”

and “Old Republic” “Republika”), which have been provided by the present

author.

The results of the survey are to a great extent similar to the outcome of the

study proper. Out of a total of 699 selections made, 378 (52%) pointed to calqued

renditions and 189 (26%) choices concerned TL items created through the use of

naturalising procedures. Items formed through combinations of translation

procedures were picked 101 times (14%), whereas instances of borrowing were

71

selected 59 times (8%), which is the reverse of what was gathered from the study

proper.

Analysis of the survey identified items present in set 4 to be most eagerly

selected by readers (30% of total choices made), followed closely by items taken

from set 5 (26% of total choices made).

Details concerning the survey are presented in Appendix D.

72

Conclusion

The present dissertation first focused on the theories concerning foreignisation

and domestication mechanisms. There followed a definition and classification of

proper names according to Newmark and Vermes; the chapter concluded with

presentation of established classifications of translation procedures. Chapter 2

went on to give a brief outline of the science fiction genre, including its

definitions and a brief history. George Lucas’s Star Wars was presented as a

representative of SF and the object of study. The chapter concluded with an

exploration of the Polish SF tradition. Having provided all necessary theoretical

background, the present thesis then moved on to the main study in Chapter 3. Its

results, compared to that of the survey, turned out to confirm the initial

hypothesis, stated in 3.1.3.

Results of the main study show beyond doubt that translations of

contemporary SF literature are essentially foreignising. What is striking is that

although domesticating procedures have significantly declined in recent

renditions, as compared to previous versions, it is nevertheless clear that they

have never constituted a majority of applied procedures. This essentially

demonstrates the hypothesis concerning the dominance of foreignisation in the

transfer from culturally dominant SL to the inferior TL. It is clear, therefore, that

Venuti’s comments on foreignisation as means of combating the English-

language culture system, are certainly not applicable to cases where the afore-

mentioned model of transfer takes place, which confirms Hatim and Mason’s

comments on the subject.

The boundaries of the study present in Chapter 3 are of necessity rather

strict. It would no doubt be interesting to extend the research to other popular

73

science fiction titles. Should similar results be found, the formulations expressed

by the present author would indeed acquire more reliability.

74

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Mechanizmy wyobcowania i adaptacji w tłumaczeniach

literatury science fiction, na przykładzie „Gwiezdnych wojen"

George'a Lucasa

Streszczenie Celem niniejszej pracy jest zbadanie pojęć wyobcowania i adaptacji oraz

częstotliwości ich zastosowania, poprzez różne procedury, w tłumaczeniach

współczesnej literatury science fiction. By móc zidentyfikować dominację jednej

ze wspomnianych strategii tłumaczeniowych, w niniejszej pracy zawarto badanie

na pięciu zestawach (setach) polskich wersji adaptacji książkowych

"Gwiezdnych wojen" (Epizody IV-VI) George'a Lucasa.

Rozdział pierwszy pracy przybliża czytelnikowi zagadnienia

wyobcowania i adaptacji podając ich definicje, a także przedstawiając je w

kontekście historycznym. Jako, że w opinii autora poszczególne procedury

tłumaczeniowe są najbardziej widoczne w tłumaczeniach nazw własnych,

rozdział ten podaje także ich szczegółową klasyfikację, na podstawie której

sformułowane zostaną kategorie badanego słownictwa w rozdziale trzecim.

Rozdział pierwszy kończy się przedstawieniem czterech klasyfikacji procedur

tłumaczeniowych; zawarte w rozdziale trzecim badanie korzystać będzie z

klasyfikacji zaproponowanej przez Piotra Kwiecińskiego.

Rozdział drugi przedstawia zagadnienia związane z science fiction jako

gatunkiem literackim. Rozdział zawiera najpopularniejsze definicje SF, oraz

przybliża najważniejsze pojęcia związane z gatunkiem. Po przedstawieniu

krótkiego rysu historycznego SF, rozdział skupia się na Gwiezdnych wojnach

George'a Lucasa jako na najpopularniejszym obecnie przedstawicielu science

fiction; przytoczone zostały m.in. opinie badaczy, a także samego autora, na

78

temat elementów, które wpłynęły na kształt tak powieści, jak i filmu. Rozdział

zamyka krótkie przedstawienie polskiej tradycji literatury fantastyczno-naukowej

oraz przybliżenie sylwetek najważniejszych pisarzy i dzieł z nią związanych.

Rozdział trzeci zawiera szczegółowe zestawienie źródeł, na podstawie

których przeprowadzone zostało właściwe badanie. Wyszczególnione zostają

zarówno oryginalne tytuły angielskie, jak i ich polskie odpowiedniki, które

zebrano w pięć zestawów. Najwcześniejszy zestaw tłumaczeń pochodzi z

początków lat 80-tych; przekłady te dokonane zostały nieoficjalnie przez

fankluby w Warszawie i Łodzi. Najnowszy zaś zestaw tworzy słownictwo

pochodzące z tytułów wydanych w ciągu ostatnich trzech lat, dzięki czemu

tendencje tłumaczeniowe zaobserwować można z perspektywy ponad

dwudziestu lat.

Po przedstawieniu właściwego badania, jego wyniki zestawione zostały z

wywiadem dokonanym w grupie stu czytelników literatury science fiction.

Przedstawiono im listę czternastu oryginalnych nazw własnych, zestawionych z

trzema możliwymi wersjami polskimi, zaczerpniętymi z opisanych wcześniej

zestawów i poproszono o wybranie najbardziej naturalnie brzmiącego polskiego

odpowiednika.

Wyniki obu badań wykazują zdecydowanie dominującą obecność strategii

wyobcowania. Procedury wywołujące ten właśnie efekt stanowiły ponad połowę

(56%) wszystkich zaobserwowanych procedur. Potwierdza to teorię wysokiej

tolerancji obcego słownictwa w docelowych systemach językowych,

charakteryzujących się niższym od źródłowego systemu prestiżem. Tendencję tę

potwierdzają wyniki wywiadu wśród czytelników: ponad połowa wszystkich

dokonanych wyborów (52%) wskazywała na odpowiedniki polskie oryginalnego

słownictwa, sformułowane za pomocą wyobcowujących procedur. Szczegółowe

przedstawienie wyników, wraz z opisem procentowym, wieńczy rozdział trzeci.

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Badanie dostarcza cennych wskazówek odnośnie panujących obecnie

tendencji w tłumaczeniach literatury popularnej. Rozszerzenie badania na inne

popularne tytuły science fiction pomogłoby uwiarygodnić wyniki zawarte w

niniejszej pracy, a także pozwolić na daleko idące wnioski dotyczące wpływu

kultury angielskojęzycznej na język polski.

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Appendix A: Campbell’s “Hero’s Journey” and Star Wars

Below is a table containing Campbell's prototypical elements of a story compared

to Star Wars plot elements:

Table 1. Campbell’s “Hero’s Journey” and Star Wars. Brennan, Kristen. In: Jitterbug

Fantasia. http://www.jitterbug.com/origins/myth.html. ED January 14, 2006.

Campbell’s “Hero’s Journey” Star Wars

I. Departure The call to adventure Princess Leia’s message

Refusal of the call Must help with the harvest Supernatural aid Obi-Wan rescues Luke from the Sandpeople

Crossing the first threshold Escaping Tatooine The belly of the whale Trash compactor

II. Initiation The road of trials Lightsabre practice

The meeting with the goddess Princess Leia Temptation away from the true path Luke is tempted by the Dark Side

Atonement with the Father Darth Vader and Luke reconcile Apotheosis (becoming god-like) Luke becomes a Jedi

The ultimate boon Death Star destroyed III. Return

Refusal of the return Luke wants to stay and avenge Obi-Wan The magic flight Millennium Falcon

Rescue from without Han saves Luke from Darth Vader

Crossing the return threshold Millennium Falcon destroys pursuing TIE fighters

Master of the two worlds Victory ceremony Freedom to live Rebellion is victorious over the Empire

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Appendix B: Complete list of researched vocabulary items

Table 2. Complete list of researched vocabulary items (continued on next page).

TT item/equivalent ST item

set 1 set 2 set 3 Tatooine Tatooine Tatooine Tatooine

Anchorhead Anchorhead Anchorhead Anchorhead Western Dune Sea Zachodnia Pustynia Piaszczysta Zachodnie Morze Wydm Zachodnie Morze Wydm

The Jundland Wastes Judland pustkowia Jundlandu pustkowia Jundlandu Mos Eisley Spaceport port kosmiczny Mos Eisley Kosmoport Mos Eisley Kosmoport Mos Eisley

Echo Station Echo-Stacja posterunek Echo posterunek Echo Dagobah system system Dagobah system Dagobah system Dagobah

Cloud City Miasto Chmur Miasto Chmur Miasto Chmur Great Pit of Carkoon wielki Dół Carkoon n/a Wielka jama Carkoon

LOC

ATI

ON

S

Sanctuary Moon księżyc n/a księżyc-sanktuarium Artoo Detoo Artoo Detoo Erdwa Dedwa Erdwa Dedwa See Threepio See Threepio Ce Trzypeo Ce Trzypeo

Dark Lord of the Sith Lord Ciemności ... z planety Sith Czarny Lord Sith Czarny Lord Sith Luke Skywalker Luke Skywalker Luke Skywalker Luke Skywalker

Biggs Darklighter Biggs Darklighter Biggs Darklighter Biggs Darklighter Too-Onebee Too-Onebee 2-1B 2-1B

Sith Lord Władca Sith Lord Sithu Lord Sith Salacious Crumb Lubieżny Okruch n/a Lubieżny Okruch Eve-Ninedenine Eve-Ninedenine n/a Eva Dziewięćdedziewięć

CH

AR

AC

TER

S

Goldenrod złota pałka n/a Złota Sztaba Rand Ecliptic Rand Ecliptic Rand Ecliptis Rand Ecliptis sandcrawler pojazd gąsienicowy piaskoczołg piaskoczołg

Millennium Falcon Millenium Falcon Sokół Millenium Sokół Millenium TIE fighter ścigacz klasy T myśliwiec ... klasa T myśliwiec ... klasa T

X-Wing fighter X-skrzydłowy myśliwiec X-skrzydłowy myśliwiec X-skrzydłowy myśliwiec Imperial Probe Droid imperialny robot-sonda imperialny robot sondujący imperialny robot sondujący

Imperial Star Destroyer gwiezdny niszczyciel gwiezdny niszczyciel Imperium gwiezdny niszczyciel Imperium All Terrain Armored Transports opancerzone transportery terenowe terenowe opancerzone transportowce terenowe opancerzone transportowce

Rebel Star Cruiser gwiezdny krążownik gwiezdny krążownik Rebelii gwiezdny krążownik Rebelii Super Star Destroyer Super Niszczyciel Gwiezdny n/a Gwiezdny Superniszczyciel

A-Wing fighters myśliwce A-skrzydłowe n/a A-skrzydłowe myśliwce The Imperial Walker maszyna n/a łazik

VEH

ICLE

S &

STA

RSH

IPS

Home-One Baza n/a Baza Jeden Old Republic Stara Republika Dawna Republika Dawna Republika Jedi Knights rycerze zwani Jedi Rycerze Jedi Rycerze Jedi

Empire Imperium Imperium Imperium Imperial Senate Senat Imperium Senat Imperium Senat Imperium Rebel Alliance Związek Rebeliantów rebelianckie Przymierze rebelianckie Przymierze

sandpeople ludzie pustyni ludzie piasku ludzie piasku Tusken Raiders Tusken Raiders Jeźdźcy Tusken Jeźdźcy Tusken O

RG

AN

ISA

TIO

NS

Galactic Empire - Galaktyczne Imperium Galaktyczne Imperium Journal of the Whillis Dziennik Whillisa "Dziennik Whillis" "Dziennik Whillis"

Sand-flies pustynne muchy piasko-muchy piaskomuchy krayt dragon skrzydlaty wąż krayt-smok krayt-smok

The Force "Siła" Moc Moc Corellians Korelianie Korelianie Korelianie

Gimer Stick cienka gałązka gałązka gimer gałązka gimer Chief of Cyborg Operations szef operacji na cyborgach n/a szef działań cyborgów

Galactic Civil War Galaktyczna Wojna Domowa n/a Galaktyczna Wojna Domowa

OTH

ER

Leafbrothers bracia poprzez liście n/a bracia-liście

82

TT item/equivalent ST item

set 4 set 5 Tatooine Tatooine Tatooine (WG)

Anchorhead Anchorhead Anchorhead (WG) Western Dune Sea Zachodnie Morze Wydm n/a

The Jundland Wastes pustkowia Jundlandu jundlandzkie pustkowia (ROTS) Mos Eisley Spaceport Kosmoport Mos Eisley n/a

Echo Station posterunek Echo n/a Dagobah system układ Dagobah n/a

Cloud City Miasto w Chmurach n/a Great Pit of Carkoon Wielka Jama Carkoon Wielka Jama Carkoon (TUF)

LOC

ATI

ON

S

Sanctuary Moon księżyc-sanktuarium n/a Artoo Detoo R2 D2 R2-D2 (TUF) See Threepio C 3PO See-Threepio (ROTS)

Dark Lord of the Sith Czarny Lord Sith Czarny Lord Sithów (ROTS) Luke Skywalker Luke Skywalker Luke Skywalker (WG)

Biggs Darklighter Biggs Darklighter Biggs Darklighter (WG) Too-Onebee 2-1B robot medyczny Too-Onebee (WG)

Sith Lord Lord Sithów Lord Sithów (ROTS) Salacious Crumb Lubieżny Okruch n/a Eve-Ninedenine EV 9D9 n/a

CH

AR

AC

TER

S

Goldenrod złota sztaba Złota Sztaba (TUF) Rand Ecliptic Rand Ecliptic n/a sandcrawler piaskoczołg n/a

Millennium Falcon Sokół Tysiąclecia Sokół Millenium (TUF) TIE fighter myśliwiec ... typu TIE myśliwiec TIE (WG)

X-Wing fighter myśliwiec typu X X-wing (WG) Imperial Probe Droid imperialny robot sondujący n/a

Imperial Star Destroyer gwiezdny niszczyciel Imperium imperialny niszczyciel gwiezdny (WG) All Terrain Armored Transports terenowe opancerzone transportery n/a

Rebel Star Cruiser gwiezdny krążownik Rebelii n/a Super Star Destroyer Gwiezdny superniszczyciel gwiezdny superniszczyciel (TUF)

A-Wing fighters myśliwce A n/a The Imperial Walker robot maszyna krocząca AT-AT (XW)

VEH

ICLE

S &

STA

RSH

IPS

Home-One Baza Jeden n/a Old Republic Dawna Republika Stara Republika (WG) Jedi Knights rycerze Jedi rycerze Jedi (WG)

Empire Imperium Imperium (WG) Imperial Senate Senat Imperium Imperialny Senat (WG) Rebel Alliance rebeliancki Sojusz Sojusz Rebeliantów (WG)

sandpeople ludzie piasku n/a Tusken Raiders Jeźdźcy Tusken Jeźdźcy Tusken (AOTC) O

RG

AN

ISA

TIO

NS

Galactic Empire galaktyczne Imperium Galaktyczne Imperium (ROTS) Journal of the Whillis "Dziennik Whillis" n/a

Sand-flies piaskomuchy n/a krayt dragon smok krayt smok krayt (ROTS)

The Force Moc Moc (WG) Corellians Korelianie z Korelii (WG)

Gimer Stick gałązka gimer laska (ROTS) Chief of Cyborg Operations szef działu cyborgów n/a

Galactic Civil War galaktyczna wojna domowa galaktyczna wojna domowa (WG)

OTH

ER

Leafbrothers bracia-liście n/a

Appendix C: Details concerning the main research

Table 3. Details concerning the breakdown of the number of translation operations by set

and procedure.

No. of occurences in Set: Procedure: 1 2 3 4 5

Total:

borrowing 6 3 3 3 4 19 calque 9 16 17 14 9 65 combinations 3 – – 1 2 6 recognised exoti-cism – – – – 1 1 normalisation 7 4 5 7 2 25 deletion – – – – – – covert cultural subst. – – – – – – overt cultural subst. – – – – – – Subtotal: 25 23 25 25 18 116

Global breakdown of procedures

16%

56%

5%

1%

22%

Borrowing CalqueCombinationsRecognised exoticismNormalisation

Diagram 1. Global breakdown of procedures identified in the main research.

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84

Appendix D: Details concerning the survey conducted among

SF readers

Below is the questionnaire offered to the survey participants: W podanych poniżej przykładach, proszę zaznaczyć najbardziej odpowiednią (płynną, naturalnie brzmiącą) polską wersję danej oryginalnej nazwy własnej:

1. The Jundland Wastes: A) Jundland B) pustkowia Jundlandu C) jundlandzkie pustkowia 2. Artoo Detoo: A) Artoo Detoo B) Erdwa Dedwa C) R2-D2 3. See Threepio: A) See Threepio B) Ce Trzypeo C) C 3PO 4. Too-Onebee: A) Too-Onebee B) 2-1B C) robot medyczny Too-Onebee 5. Millennium Falcon: A) Millennium Falcon B) Sokół Millenium C) Sokół Tysiąclecia 6. TIE fighter: A) ścigacz klasy T B) myśliwiec typu TIE C) myśliwiec TIE 7. X-Wing fighter: A) X-skrzydłowy myśliwiec B) myśliwiec typu X C) X-Wing

8. Rebel Alliance: A) Związek Rebeliantów B) rebelianckie Przymierze C) Sojusz Rebeliantów 9. krayt dragon: A) skrzydlaty wąż B) krayt-smok C) smok krayt 10. Gimer Stick: A) cienka gałązka B) gałązka gimer C) laska 11. Cloud City: A) Cloud City B) Miasto Chmur C) Miasto w Chmurach 12. Jedi Knights: A) Jedi B) rycerze zwani Jedi C) Rycerze Jedi 13. Imperial Senate: A) Senat B) Senat Imperium C) Imperialny Senat 14. Old Republic: A) Republika B) Stara Republika C) Dawna Republika

Table 4. Details concerning the breakdown of selections by procedure and percentage. Five

votes in total were not cast.

Procedure: No. of selections Breakdown (%)

borrowing 118 8% calque 730 53% combinations 187 13% recognised exoti-cism 0 0% normalisation 360 26% deletion 0 0% covert cultural subst. 0 0% overt cultural subst. 0 0% Total: 1395 100%

Following is a list of participants of the survey:

AdiSon, Agata Olempiejuk, Akashka89, an_ge, Anarchist, Ante Gregu,

Anubis, Arthis, Askar, Badus, Bard, Bartek Ciunowicz, Bartłomiej Roz-

marynowski, Bizon, Brzoza, Burzol, Caeradwyn, ceta, Chiss, Craven, Cylindryk,

DantE, Darek Jedi, djsmol, Doman, Drake, Ela, Falcon, faultfett, Ferek, Fizyk,

Franki, Frost, Gaber, Gargooletz, gibonson, Greatone, greedo_85, Grey, hons,

Inkwizytor, Io Nois, Irbendal, Isa Modzelewska, Jaden Kast, Jaqob, Jaxa, Jedi

Grzyb, jedi_kawon, JORUUS, Kenobix, kicanka, Kiender, Kol King, KoZi,

kreet, Krzychoo, Laie, Laurana, Lee_Nox, Long JB, Lorienjo, Mangus, Mazar,

Mefisto, Merridius, MidMad, Mike, Mirax, Mroczny, NaVaR, N'Loriel, noggin

nogarung, Padme, Pafawag, Paula, Phab, Puszon, qdlaty, Rabban, Rael, Ragnus,

Rhotax, Ricky Skywalker, Rif, Ryjek, Seji, SeventhSon, Shonsu, SithLady, star-

lift, Szept, t_pot, Tarkis, Technik, Tremayne, Voras, Wojtek, Wołej, Worm,

Yako, Yarosh, ZDZS, ziem.

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Appendix E: Interview with Piotr W. Cholewa

(Łukasz Młotkowski) W jakim stopniu mówić można o literaturze science fiction jako literaturze rozrywkowej? Czy takie jej ujęcie wymusza na tłumaczu dostarczenia czytel-nikowi tekstu uproszczonego względem oryginału, jeśli język, którym posługuje się autor uznany zostanie jako trudny w odbiorze? (Piotr W. Cholewa) W takim samym, jak o dowolnej innej literaturze. To znaczy, istnieją "czy-sto rozrywkowe" (cokolwiek to oznacza) teksty science fiction, istnieją teksty "głęboko proble-mowe" (cokolwiek to oznacza), oraz mnóstwo tekstów pomiędzy tymi biegunami. W tym litera-tura sf nie różni się od innych gałęzi literackich. Dla tłumacza niewiele z tego wynika. Jeśli mamy do czynienia z tekstem czysto rozrywkowym, to już na poziomie oryginału język bywa uproszczony. Więc to, o co przy tłumaczeniu naprawdę trzeba zadbać, to nie upraszczanie języ-ka, ale zachowanie "rozrywkowości". Byłoby naprawdę niedobrze, gdyby tekst rozrywkowy w oryginale, w przekładzie okazał się nieciekawy i nudny. Język – a właściwie jego poziom - na-leży zachowywać tak, jak zaplanował to autor. (ŁM) Z językowego punktu widzenia, na jakie trudności napotkać może tłumacz science fiction? (PWC) Rozmaite. W utworach science fiction istotny bywa niekiedy człon "science" - to prostu wypada wiedzieć, o czym autor pisze, a wiedza taka nie jest niestety powszechna. Jeśli tłuma-czymy coś na temat wirtualnej rzeczywistości, należałoby coś wiedzieć o komputerach, jeśli teksty Egana - to o matematyce. I tak dalej. Oczywiście, problem znajomości tematu pojawia się przy każdym tłumaczeniu (jeśli mainstreamowa książka dotyczy - powiedzmy - drużyny base-ballowej, warto sprawdzić, jakie są zasady tej gry), jednak przy science fiction chodzi często o dziedziny ścisłe. Nawet jeśli mamy do czynienia z techniką całkowicie wymyśloną, jak w Gwiezdnych wojnach, należy dopilnować, by stworzone terminy brzmiały sensownie, natural-nie – i żeby stosować je konsekwentnie. Tym bardziej, że są wymyślone. W opisie samochodu nie musimy szczególnie się starać, żeby kierownicę zawsze nazywać kierownicą - a statku ko-smicznym może być wolant, drążek, dżojstik albo coś jeszcze. (ŁM) Popularne tytuły SF, jak chociażby Gwiezdne wojny, doczekały się licznych konty-nuacji. Czy Pana zdaniem istnieje konieczność pozostania w zgodności z istniejącymi wcześniej tłumaczeniami podczas przekładu nowego tytułu takiej serii? (PWC) To pytanie dotyczy jakby dwóch spraw. Oczywiście, że tak. Istnieje konieczność, za-chowanie zgodności to - jak się wydaje – wymóg przyzwoitego wydania, uczciwości wobec czytelnika i tak dalej. Niestety, w praktyce wydawniczej tak często nie jest. (ŁM) Czy Pana zdaniem dzisiejsze tłumaczenia science fiction wykazują tendencję do wy-obcowania (foreignization) czy adaptacji (domestication) tekstu przez tłumacza? Czy tłu-macz raczej pozostanie wierny oryginałowi, pozostawiając np. oryginalne nazwy własne w przetłumaczonym tekście, czy też dokona pełnej adaptacji tekstu? (PWC) Nie podjąłbym się analizy statystycznej. Owszem, nazwy własne często zostają zacho-wane - ale przecież nie jest to cecha akurat tekstów science fiction. Proszę zauważyć, że jednak zawsze piszemy Liverpool, a nie "Basen Wątróbki" (Pool of Liver), jednak równocześnie Nowy

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Jork (a nie New York) - choć z drugiej strony jednak New Jersey. W dużej mierze zależy to od brzmienia, od tego, czy tłumaczenie nazwy nie wypadnie nieintencjonalnie śmiesznie (Niebo-chód zamiast Skywalkera). Z drugiej strony mamy do czynienia z anglicyzacją języka potocz-nego, więc jeśli tekst ma brzmieć naturalnie (a o to przecież chodzi), to pewne foreignization jest konieczne. Mam wrażenie, że trudno tu silnie wyróżnić którąkolwiek z tendencji. (ŁM) Czy według Pana tendencja w tłumaczeniach na przestrzeni lat zmieniała się, czy też pozostaje wciąż stała (wyobcowanie, bądź adaptacja)? (PWC) Jak wspomniałem wyżej, silniejsza jest chyba tendencja wyobcowania – ale wynika to z tendencji obserwowanych w języku potocznym. (ŁM) Jaka Pana zdaniem tendencja powinna dziś przyświecać tłumaczom? (PWC) Nie wydaje mi się, żeby tłumacz, zaczynając przekład, z góry decydował, czy skieruje się w stronę adaptacji, czy wyobcowania. Uważam, że bardzo mocno zależy to od charakteru, klimatu samego tekstu. Czy powinien być bardziej "egzotyczny", czy raczej swojski. Tym bar-dziej, że w obu przypadkach łatwo o przesadę. (ŁM) Czy Pana zdaniem po literaturę science fiction sięga się w Polsce chętnie? Czy grozi jej, jak twierdzą niektórzy, wyparcie przez tytuły stricte fantasy? (PWC) Fantasy w swej masie wydaje się łatwiejsza w odbiorze. Science fiction – jak już wspo-mniałem - wymaga pewnej technicznej wiedzy, czy raczej intuicji. Być może dlatego teksty fantasy obecnie wydają się bardziej popularne. Nie wydaje mi się jednak, żeby tendencja ta byłą stała, tym bardziej, że granice między tymi odmianami mocno się zacierają. Mamy przecież urban fantasy, a nawet Gwiezdne wojny często są przyporządkowywane do nurtu fantasy, a nie science fiction. (ŁM) Jak duży wpływ na tłumaczenia dużych serii science fiction mają fani danego tytułu zrzeszeni w fandom? (PWC) Niezbyt wielki. Owszem, stanowią coś w rodzaju zorganizowanej opinii publicznej, ich głos jest lepiej słyszalny, oceny zwykle lepiej wyważone i z lepszą argumentacją (choćby dlate-go, że czytali więcej i mają lepsze pole do porównań). Tworzą pewien krąg opiniotwórczy. Jed-nakże nie są aż tak liczni, by ich opinie musiały być dla wydawcy wiążące. Z drugiej strony jednak zwykle są to opinie słuszne (co pokazuje rynek), więc coraz częściej wydawcy - w miarę możliwości - biorą je pod uwagę. Mam nadzieję, że będzie tak coraz częściej.

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Appendix F: Interview with Agnieszka Sylwanowicz

(ŁM) W jakim stopniu mówić można o literaturze science fiction jako literaturze rozryw-kowej? (Agnieszka Sylwanowicz) Nigdy nie byłam zwolenniczką podziałów gatunkowych, najchętniej dzielę literaturę na dobrą i złą. SF jako lit. rozrywkowa - o tyle, o ile mówi o rzeczach rozryw-kowych, a więc zapewne głównie właśnie space opera; mamy przecież dużo SF problemowej, bynajmniej nie rozrywkowej – choćby taka LeGuin, Wilhelm czy Brunner. (ŁM) Czy takie jej ujęcie wymusza na tłumaczu dostarczenia czytelnikowi tekstu uprosz-czonego względem oryginału, jeśli język, którym posługuje się autor uznany zostanie jako trudny w odbiorze? (AS) NIE, NIE I JESZCZE RAZ NIE! Obowiązkiem (powołaniem, posłannictwem?) tłumacza jest przetłumaczyć tekst możliwie wiernie, bez uszczerbku dla języka przekładu, tak, by wraże-nie czytelnika przekładu było jak najbardziej zbliżone do wrażenia czytelnika oryginału. Nie tłumaczowi jest dane poprawiać autora. Jeśli j. oryginału zostanie uznany za trudny w odbiorze (tak nawiasem mówiąc - znasz jakiś przykład? Mnie się to wydaje dość hipotetyczne), to książki albo nie należy tłumaczyć (bo za trudna, ale dla czytelnika, nie dla tłumacza), albo jednak am-bitnie wydać. Ale nie zmieniać - nie mamy prawa tego robić. Autor napisał to tak, jak napisał. Chyba że się z nim porozumiemy. Ciekawi mnie ew. przykład, bo trudno mi sobie wyobrazić rozrywkową SF napisaną za trudnym językiem. Uważam, że równie sumiennie, a najlepiej z pasją, należy tłumaczyć Tolkiena, jak "arlekiny". Tego wymaga profesjonalizm. Rozumiem, że mówimy o tłumaczeniach profesjonalnych, a nie amatorskich, choć i efekty takiej pracy można znaleźć w księgarniach. (ŁM) Z językowego punktu widzenia, na jakie trudności napotkać może tłumacz science fiction? (AS) Tak na szybko - chyba największe związane z neologizmami. Taki np. j. ang. ma ogromną łatwość tworzenia nowych słów, u nas z tym gorzej. No i problemy natury naukowo-technicznej - dobrze jest się znać na tym, co się tłumaczy... (ŁM) Popularne tytuły SF, jak chociażby Gwiezdne wojny, doczekały się licznych konty-nuacji. Czy Pani zdaniem istnieje konieczność pozostania w zgodności z istniejącymi wcze-śniej tłumaczeniami podczas przekładu nowego tytułu takiej serii? (AS) Absolutnie tak! W tym wypadku dodałabym też, że w zgodności z tłumaczeniem filmu. Na szczęście pierwsze wersje kinowe były dość dobrze przetłumaczone, na tyle, że polskie tek-sty weszły do użytku wśród fanów, ale już np. wersja "odczyszczona", bodajże na 20-lecie pre-miery, wydana na kasetach, była przetłumaczona straszliwie, "po swojemu", nie wiedzieć cze-mu nie skorzystano z poprzedniej wersji kinowej, i w efekcie tłumacz dostał Złotego Meteora (antynagroda ŚKF). Problem by się oczywiście pojawił, gdyby wersja kinowa była zła. Wtedy opowiadałabym się za ulepszeniami. Natomiast na pewno przy takich dziełach jak GW powinna być jedna osoba (zespół osób), czuwająca nad całością terminologii, bo chyba o tym mówimy? Oczywiście musi to być znawca tematu, a nie drętwy redaktor. Rzadko zaglądam do polskich książek ze świata GW, ale z tego, co widziałam, z tym czuwaniem nie jest w "Amberze" najle-

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piej. Stwarza to zamęt i rozwściecza fanów, którzy akurat do tego dzieła mają stosunek wielce emocjonalny. Jak zwykle, chodzi o profesjonalizm - w tym wypadku wydawnictwa. Chociaż i tłumacz by się chyba nie rozchorował, gdyby przypilnował poprzedniej terminologii? (ŁM) Czy Pani zdaniem dzisiejsze tłumaczenia science fiction wykazują tendencję do wy-obcowania (foreignization) czy adaptacji (domestication) tekstu przez tłumacza? (AS) Pytanie nie najszczęśliwiej skierowane - po polsku czytam polską SF, anglojęzyczna sta-ram się w oryginale (co ostatnio jest dość proste, ponieważ zupełnie nie mam czasu i bardzo starannie wybieram nieliczne tytuły). Pamiętam dyskusję wśród znajomych, z których ktoś zo-baczył właśnie w jakiejś książce GW "blaster" i dziwił się, dlaczego to nie "miotacz". Skoro pojawił się "blaster", to świadczyłoby to o "foreignization" - a może o niechlujstwie tłumacza? Przy zbytnim zaawansowaniu tego procesu tłumaczenie można już sobie darować, prawda? (ŁM) Czy tłumacz raczej pozostanie wierny oryginałowi, pozostawiając np. oryginalne nazwy własne w przetłumaczonym tekście, czy też dokona pełnej adaptacji tekstu? (AS) Wydaje mi się, że to zależy od tłumacza i/lub wydawnictwa. Ja bym była jednak za prze-kładaniem (nie adaptacją, bo to mi trąci zbytnią dowolnością, ale tu się chyba czepiam), bo chyba dobrze wiedzieć, jakie skojarzenia budzi nazwa statku Hana Solo? Poza tym język polski jest na tyle giętki, że zawsze da się, lepiej lub gorzej, przekazać czytelników, co autor sobie wymyślił. To jest temat na dłuższą dyskusję - np. mieszanka angielsko-oryginalna w tłumacze-niu Skibniewskiej "Władcy Pierścieni" (ale zachowania pewnych nazw po angielsku życzył sobie sam JRRT); całkowite spolszczenie trylogii o królewskim zabójcy Hobb, co, moim zda-niem, doskonale tym książkom robi, i dowolna mieszanka proporcji polskich i ang. nazw wła-snych w innych książkach SF. Nie pamiętam w tej chwili przykładu zostawienia wszystkich nazw po angielsku, ale zapewne takie są. Zostawianie nazw ang. ma taki efekt, że dla czytelni-ków przekładu kosmos (mówiąc w uproszczeniu) jest zaludniony osobnikami kultury nam ob-cej, bo anglosaskiej; podczas gdy dla czytelników oryginału - osobnikami jak najbardziej swoj-skimi, co się kłóci z moim założeniem wywierania tego samego efektu. Z drugiej strony nawet bohaterowie Lema mieli angielskie nazwiska, więc poniekąd jesteśmy przyzwyczajeni do an-glosaskiej inwazji kosmosu - w sumie to oni wymyślili współczesną formę SF... Natomiast za jak najbardziej uzasadnione uważam zostawianie nazw brzmiących obco lub nic nie znaczących dla czytelników oryginału (Yoda, Vader, Kenobi, Kashyyyk, zaglądając na najbliższe nam podwórko). (ŁM) Czy według Pani tendencja w tłumaczeniach na przestrzeni lat zmieniała się, czy też pozostaje wciąż stała (wyobcowanie, bądź adaptacja)? (AS) Z przyczyn podanych wyżej nie wiem, ale zaryzykowałabym teorię, że przez analogię z pogarszaniem się standardów w innych dziedzinach życia to samo mamy w tłumaczeniach, a więc zaryzykowałabym wyobcowanie – ale oczywiście mogę się mylić. Naprawdę za mało czytam przekładów. I w sumie to jednak chyba zależy od tłumacza. (ŁM) Jaka Pani zdaniem tendencja powinna dziś przyświecać tłumaczom? (AS) Według Pańskiej terminologii - adaptacja. Ostatecznie chodzi o tłumaczenie osobie nie znającej oryginału o co w oryginale chodzi. (ŁM) Czy Pani zdaniem po literaturę science fiction sięga się w Polsce chętnie? Czy grozi jej, jak twierdzą niektórzy, wyparcie przez tytuły stricte fantasy?

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(AS) Na prawdę nie wiem. Słyszę narzekania na zalew fantasy i brak dobrej, twardej SF, więc może nie damy się zalać? Tylko czy ktoś zechce pisać (po polsku) albo wydawać obcą SF? Ja bym była za, b. lubię twardą SF i nawet ostatnio czytałam świetną trylogię (niestety, bez ostat-niego tomu), ale wydawca powiedział, że nie wyda, bo choć jest naprawdę dobra, to zbyt am-bitna i pewnie się nie sprzeda... Nie mówiąc już o robocie dla tłumacza, bo mnóstwo tam neolo-gizmów. Ale bo i wymaga ich sytuacja. Wracając do Pańskiego pytania - po SF sięga się chyba mniej chętnie, bo, ogólnie rzecz biorąc, jest trudniejsza od przeciętnej, dominującej na rynku fantasy. O ile SF w ogóle jest wydawana... (ŁM) Jak duży wpływ na tłumaczenia dużych serii science fiction mają fani danego tytułu zrzeszeni w fandom? (AS) Hmmm... wiem, że dzięki zmasowanej akcji fanów mieliśmy kopie z napisami (a nie tylko z dubbingiem) E I-III GW, i że dystrybutor "Władcy Pierścieni" został zalany mailami domaga-jącymi się w napisach tłumaczenia Skibniewskiej, a nie Łozińskiego. Nie wiem, na ile pokrywa-ło się to z zamiarami dystrybutora, ale fani na pewno wykonali ogromną robotę. Co do książek wiem jedno - czytelnicy SF jak nikt inny śledzą przekłady i interesują się nimi, chętnie rozma-wiając z tłumaczami o ulubionych dziełach, wytykając im błędy i chwaląc za udane propozycje. Wiem, że tłumacz "Harry'ego P." konsultował się z czytelnikami w sprawie pomysłów na neo-logizmy w kolejnych tomach książki. Czyli jakiś tam wpływ jest...

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Appendix G: Interview with Maciej Szymański

(ŁM) W jakim stopniu mówić można o literaturze science fiction jako literaturze rozryw-kowej? Czy takie jej ujęcie wymusza na tłumaczu dostarczenia czytelnikowi tekstu uproszczonego względem oryginału, jeśli język, którym posługuje się autor uznany zosta-nie jako trudny w odbiorze? (Maciej Szymański) 99% wszelkiej beletrystyki to literatura rozrywkowa. To samo dotyczy s-f. Dodam, że przez rozrywkę rozumiem tu wzbudzanie w sposób sztuczny reakcji emocjonalnej (nie tylko śmiechu, rzecz jasna, ale także smutku, zadumy, słusznego gniewu itp.). Tłumacz ma więc tylko jedno zadanie: zrobić wszystko, by wzbudzić w czytelniku lokalnym te same reakcje. Nie umiem sobie wyobrazić sytuacji, w której uznałbym, że polski czytelnik jest głupszy i nie zrozumie, więc trzeba mu uprościć. Jeżeli zrozumienie tekstu oryginalnego wymaga np. znajo-mości historii czy kultury popularnej Ameryki, to tłumacz ma obowiązek subtelnie zasugerować ów kontekst, w ostateczności nawet dodając przypis. Jeśli mamy do czynienia z literaturą s-f całkowicie oderwaną od "ziemskiego" kontekstu, pozostaje jedynie wierność oryginałowi. (ŁM) Z językowego punktu widzenia, na jakie trudności napotkać może tłumacz science fiction? (MS) Nie spotkałem się jeszcze z powieściami, w których trudnością byłby sam język, czy za-bawa językiem na masową skalę - a umiem sobie wyobrazić taki koszmar - więc jeśli chodzi o problemy, mam do powiedzenia tylko jedno słowo: neologizmy. Można zaryzykować twierdze-nie, że s-f to książki poświęcone rzeczom, których nie ma. Są to zatem rzeczy, które trzeba na-zwać :) Tworząc polskie odpowiedniki neologizmów staram się - o ile to możliwe - z jednej strony oddać sens oryginału, a z drugiej zachować zwięzłą, "wymawialną" formę, która na-prawdę mogłaby powstać w naszym języku. Tak się nieszczęśliwie składa, że gdy autor anglo-języczny wymyśli słowo złożone z dwóch jednosylabowych wyrazów, doskonale oddające sens tego, co chciał powiedzieć, to owe wyrazy w polszczyźnie mają odpowiedniki złożone z trzech i więcej sylab - zgodnie z prawem Murphy'ego, oczywiście. To dlatego czytelnicy tak często plują na tłumaczy za tworzenie językowych potworków... (ŁM) Popularne tytuły SF, jak chociażby Gwiezdne wojny, doczekały się licznych konty-nuacji. Czy Pana zdaniem istnieje konieczność pozostania w zgodności z istniejącymi wcześniej tłumaczeniami podczas przekładu nowego tytułu takiej serii? (MS) Moim zdaniem istnieje konieczność pozostania w zgodności z poprzednimi tłumaczenia-mi w serii, ale nie zawsze jest to możliwe. Przykład 1: dość niejasną nazwę, która pojawiła się we wcześniejszej powieści tylko jako nic nieznaczący ozdobnik, przetłumaczono w sposób X. W powieści późniejszej okazuje się, że nazwę tę można jedynie przetłumaczyć jako Y, jeżeli całość ma mieć jakikolwiek sens... Zdarza się tak, niestety, a wtedy zmiana jest konieczna. Przykład 2: tłumacz dostaje propozycję przejęcia serii i ma naprawdę mało czasu na wykonanie pierwszego przekładu. Nie sposób przeczytać 50 tomów w 2 tygodnie. Nie sposób wyszukiwać szukać nazw napotkanych w tomie 51, a ściślej ich polskich odpowiedników (!), w 50 tomach... Nie sposób dobierać wyłącznie takich tłumaczy, którzy znają na wylot daną serię, choć nigdy dotąd nad nią nie pracowali.... Przykład 3: poprzedni tłumacz wygłupił się tak koszmarnie, że nie pozostaje nic innego, jak tylko odstępstwo od jego przekładu :)

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(ŁM) Czy Pana zdaniem dzisiejsze tłumaczenia science fiction wykazują tendencję do wy-obcowania (foreignization) czy adaptacji (domestication) tekstu przez tłumacza? Czy tłu-macz raczej pozostanie wierny oryginałowi, pozostawiając np. oryginalne nazwy własne w przetłumaczonym tekście, czy też dokona pełnej adaptacji tekstu? (ŁM) Czy według Pana tendencja w tłumaczeniach na przestrzeni lat zmieniała się, czy też pozostaje wciąż stała (wyobcowanie, bądź adaptacja)? (ŁM) Jaka Pana zdaniem tendencja powinna dziś przyświecać tłumaczom? (MS) W pierwszej chwili pomyślałem, że mamy tendencję do zachowywania nazw obcych w oryginale. Że dawniej tłumaczono wszystko, spolszczając nawet imiona bohaterów. Mam jed-nak wrażenie, że widywałem też przed laty powieści, w których w oryginale pozostawiano za-trważającą liczbę słów - może wynikało to ze zwykłej niewiedzy tłumaczy gatunku uważanego dawniej za pośledni? Nie wiem, naprawdę trudno mi ocenić kierunek zmian, zwłaszcza, że nie czytam dziś zbyt wiele s-f (poza SW, rzecz jasna, choć i tu mam od jakiegoś czasu przestój). (MS) Jeśli chodzi o moje tłumaczenia, to staram się zachować rozsądek i szukam złotego środ-ka. Uzasadnienie: nie chcę, żeby czytelnik czuł się totalnie obco czytając mój przekład, ale jed-nocześnie nie chcę, żeby czuł się w świecie Gwiezdnych Wojen jak na wakacjach we wschod-niej Polsce. Przykład: klasy okrętów i nazwy własne okrętów. Uważam, że zachowanie tych pierwszych w oryginale dobrze służy klimatowi i spójności powieści (cyklu), natomiast tłuma-czenie tych drugich (w miarę możliwości, rzecz jasna) bywa konieczne, jeśli czytelnik ma w pełni zrozumieć intencje autora (a to dlatego, że nazwy poszczególnych jednostek nadawane są przez ludzi, bohaterów, mają dla nich znaczenie, mówią nam coś o charakterach albo o świecie, o którym opowiadamy.) No, chyba, że ktoś tłumaczy nazwę statku należącego do hazardzisty, "Lady Luck", jako "Ślicznotka", ale to już zupełnie inna para kaloszy... (ŁM) Czy Pana zdaniem po literaturę science fiction sięga się w Polsce chętnie? Czy grozi jej, jak twierdzą niektórzy, wyparcie przez tytuły stricte fantasy? Nie będę udawał, że wiem :) (ŁM) Jak duży wpływ na tłumaczenia dużych serii science fiction mają fani danego tytułu zrzeszeni w fandom? (MS) Rok temu byłem pewien, że fani nareszcie mają wpływ na to, co dzieje się z ich ukocha-nymi seriami wydawniczymi. Nie będę się powtarzał - chodzi oczywiście o mój przekład "Ze-msty Sithów". Zrobiliśmy wszystko, co możliwe, żeby było dobrze, naprawdę blisko współpra-cowaliśmy w grupie "Workshop" na Holonecie ICO, a potem... wydawca zignorował (czyli zniweczył) nasze wysiłki. Więc przynajmniej w przypadku SW odpowiedź jest jasna: fani nie mają wpływu na tłumaczenie serii s-f. Co gorsza, niewielki jest też wpływ tłumaczy :( Mamy do czynienia z dyktaturą wydawcy, który wie, że "upchnie" swój "produkt" na rynku bez względu na to, czy jest on świetnej, czy mniej świetnej jakości. Można zaryzykować twierdze-nie, że to "wina" samych fanów: są tak bardzo spragnieni "swojej" literatury, że nigdy nie zdo-będą się na bojkot i przełkną każdą zniewagę ze strony wydawcy, który skrzętnie z tego korzy-sta, na przykład nie marnując pieniędzy na zatrudnienie solidnego konsultanta serii, który koor-dynowałby prace zespołu tłumaczy. (Inna rzecz, że bojkot mógłby się skończyć co najwyżej przerwaniem wydawania serii, bo przecież wydawca nie przyzna się, że popełniał błędy...) Nie od rzeczy będzie dodać jeszcze, że proponowałem (przez przedstawiciela Lucasfilmu), że jako fan i zawodowiec w jednej osobie za darmo przetłumaczę listę dialogową Zemsty Sithów, tylko po to, by zachować ciągłość nazewniczą z powieścią i innymi materiałami - polski dystrybutor oczywiście nie był uprzejmy nawet odpowiedzieć na tę ofertę, co zaowocowało serią potwor-

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ków językowych i nonsensów w filmie. Smutne, ale prawdziwe (Wyjaśnienie: zbieżność na-zwisk tłumaczki filmu i członka zarządu firmy dystrybutorskiej nie jest przypadkowa, niestety, ale to już tylko uwaga na marginesie...). Fani mogą tylko jedno: wysupłać kasę na kolejny pro-dukt.