FEE - Aracne · 2017-09-20 · The use of alcohol and nicotine in young’s people 1. Stages and...

A11655

TranslationKarol Nobis

AffiliationUniwersytet Jana Kochanowskiego w Kielcach, Wydział Nauk oZdrowiu; Università Salesiana di Roma, Istituto di Psicologia

ReviewersProf. dr Maria Luisa de LucaProf. dr hab. Józef Binnebesel

Monika Szpringer Zbigniew Formella

The Use of Psychoactive Substances by Young People

Based on the Example of Alcohol and Nicotine

Copyright © MMXIARACNE editrice S.r.l.

[email protected]

via Raffaele Garofalo, 133/A–B00173 Roma(06) 93781065

ISBN 978–88–548–4368–4

No part of this book may be reproduced in any form,by print, photoprint, microfilm, microfiche, or any other means,

without written permission from the publisher.

1st edition: November 2011

7

Index

Introduction ........................................................................................ 9

Chapter I

The use of alcohol and nicotine in young’s people ...................... 13

1. Stages and phases of alcohol consumption ............................. 13

2. Reasons of using alcohol by young people .............................. 18 2.1. Family and alcohol consumption by adolescents ............. 20 2.2. The influence of a peer groups upon consumption of

alcohol by young’s people ................................................. 23

3. Consequences of drinking alcohol by young people ............... 25 3.1. Medical consequences of using alcohol by adolescents .. 25 3.2. Social consequences of drinking alcohol by young

people ............................................................................... 33

4. Young people and influence of advertisement and promotion of alcohol .................................................................. 37

5. Addiction to nicotine and its symptoms .................................... 39

6. The phenomenon of smoking among young people ................ 45

7. Medical consequences of smoking cigarettes .......................... 50

8. Social consequences of smoking cigarettes ............................. 56

9. The prophylaxis of using and abusing alcohol and cigarettes by youth ..................................................................... 57

9.1. Addiction prophylaxis in the european union .................... 65 9.2. Legal basis of alcohol and tobacco prophylaxis ............... 70

8 Index

9.3. Prophylaxis of addiction to alcohol in schools .................. 75 9.4. Addiction prophylaxis undertaken in milieus .................... 78 9.5. Leisure time as a form of addiction prophylaxis ............... 81

Chapter II

The issue of using alcohol and smoking tobacco by young people in view of previous studies ................................................. 87

1. Studies in the European Union ................................................... 87

2. The statistics of the state agency for the prevention of alcohol-related problems (parpa) as a source of data regarding the alcohol problems among teenagers in Poland 96

3. Deliberate intoxication among adolescents in view of the studies conducted in Poland ................................................... 101

4. Using alcohol and nicotine by young people based upon own studies ............................................................................... 107

4.1. Demographic data .......................................................... 107 4.2. The issue of using alcohol by students .......................... 108

5. The phenomenon of smoking cigarettes by surveyed students..................................................................................... 123

6. The attempts to tackle the issue of using legal psychoactive substances by young people ........................... 160

Conclusions .................................................................................... 170

Bibliography ................................................................................... 172

Index of tables ................................................................................ 184

Index of figures .............................................................................. 190

9

Introduction

Legal stimulating substances are widely popular and easily accessible products, even for young people (particularly alcohol and cigarettes). The contemporary market offers a wide variety of substances that lead people to disturb their daily life rhythm, neglect their obligations and destroy their health which results in the subsequent occurrence of numerous serious diseases.

The adolescence is an important period of transition, during which young people develop their skills, interests and acquire new experiences by undertaking various, also hazardous, activi-ties. Using psychoactive substances, such as cigarettes and al-cohol is one of the most frequent.1

Health behaviours or related ones are the types of behaviours of an individual, which form elements of everyday life and in-fluence such individual’s health. It includes activities which en-gage the individual’s knowledge on health and diseases in prac-tical dimension. Such activities are subject of unrestrained and personal patterns and decisions. This group of behaviours and health-influencing factors are to the greatest extent controllable by a human being.2

1 Newman K., Harrison L., Dashiff C., Davies S., Relacões entre modelos de pais e comportamentos de risco na saúde do adolescente: uma revisão integrative da litera-ture, Revista Latino-Americana de Enfermagem, 16(1), 2008, 142-150; Centers for Dis-ease Control and Prevention Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance, Morbidity and Mortali-ty Weekly Report, 2008.

2 �o�nierczuk-Kieliszek D., Zachowania zdrowotne i ich zwi�zek ze zdrowiem, w: Zdrowie Publiczne, Kulik T. B., Latalski M. (red.), Lublin, 76, 2002, 79-80.

10 Introduction _____________________________________________________________________

A lifestyle, one of the fundamental determinant of health, is strictly related to the above-mentioned behaviours. The lifestyle may be defined as a set of individual’s everyday behaviours re-flecting one’s social position. Hence, the lifestyle is a set of be-haviours implemented in all aspects of life. By implication, the behaviours within the health sphere constitute an element of the lifestyle and are bound with the system. The knowledge on health may be founded upon various sources, e.g. scientific studies or others, depending on individual’s priorities. In other words, people may behave in such ways, which in their mind are beneficial for health, but which in fact are not.3

Health behaviours are to a considerable degree shaped by factors related to human being’s social life, which includes cul-tural and economical conditions.

The knowledge about health behaviours has become indis-pensable for implementation of health policy. Most of all, the health policy includes patterns of behaviours which are signifi-cant to health, in particular social categories and groups as well as factors that influence those categories. These issues, being the object of sociological studies, refer to such following behav-iours as, among other things: cigarette smoking, consumption of alcohol, patterns of spending free time or ways of dealing with stress. It is also important to consider which patterns of behav-iour are most frequently implemented by an individual and whether or not they are coherent with patterns recommended by medical science.4

Alcohol and nicotine have been present in people’s lives for a long time, only the patterns of their consumption were chang-ing. Alcoholic drinks and cigarettes are used by increasing number of children and adolescents in Poland. It may be caused

3 Taranowicz I., Zachowania w zdrowiu i chorobie, w: Zdrowie i choroba. Wybrane problemy socjologii medycyny, Bara�ski J., Pi�tkowski W. (red.), Wroc�aw, 2002, 63-74.

4 Op. cit.

Introduction 11 _______________________________________________

by problems at home or at school; also young people succumb to the influence of their colleagues or peer groups. Other impor-tant elements fostering the initiation and subsequent use of psy-choactive substances are: sense of seclusion among young peo-ple, personal problems, overload or lack of obligations as well as various conflicts which occur at homes or peer milieu.

Currently, the age if tobacco and alcohol consumers is con-tinuously decreasing. Adolescents adopt drinking and smoking patterns from parents and other adults. Sometimes parents allow their children to drink alcohol in their presence, since they con-sider it as a good method of teaching their children how to con-sume alcohol safely and responsibly.

Consumption of alcohol and tobacco is indicated as one of the most frequent risk behaviours undertaken by young people. It usually co-occurs with other risk behaviours, such as using other psychoactive substances, early sexual initiation, aggres-sion, juvenile crime, etc. Currently, the numerous health-affecting and social results, defined as damages, are considered to be consequences of using psychoactive substances and these consequences may be divided into two groups: directs health and safety hazards and hazards which influence the proper de-velopment. The first group of damages includes such behav-iours as: fights, water jumping and driving under the influence of alcohol, early initiation of alcohol consumption, etc. The second group includes such factors as: inability to cope with difficult situations, problems with learning, no control over one’s body and psyche.5

The issue of using legal psychoactive substances is highly complex due to a numerous conditions, causes and conse-

5 Woynarowska B., Mazur J., Zmiany w u�ywaniu substancji psychoaktywnych przez m�odzie� w wieku 11 – 15 lat w Polsce w latach 2002 – 2006, Problemy Higieny i Epidemiologii, 88(4), 2007, 429 – 435.

12 Introduction _____________________________________________________________________

quences. Nonetheless, the escalation of alcohol and nicotine consumption by young people is a disturbing phenomenon that may lead to particularly hazardous addiction and other related problems.6

Therefore, this book touches important and current social is-sues which refer to young people and at the same time bring considerable losses in economical, health, family and personal dimensions. The studies in this area may and ought to facilitate the development of efficient prophylactic measures as well as attenuate damages induced by the use of psychoactive sub-stances, such as alcohol and nicotine.

Monika Szpringer Zbigniew Formella

6 Szpringer M., Szkolna profilaktyka zachowa� patologicznych dzieci i m�odzie�y,Wszechnica �wi�tokrzyska, Kielce, 2001, 36; 60; 101.

13

Chapter I

The use of alcohol and nicotine in young’s people

1. Stages and phases of alcohol consumption

Addiction is defined in numerous ways and it is usually as-sociated with long-term consumption and abuse of such sub-stances as alcohol, narcotics, medicines, nicotine, etc.

Alcoholism is any form of alcohol consumption that goes beyond traditional and customary sphere or is inconsistent with social drinking custom of a given community, regardless the etiological factors which lead to such behaviour and regardless the extent, to which such etio-logical factors depend upon hereditary features, physical condition and acquired physiological and metabolic disorders.1

The alcoholism is defined by the American Medical Asso-ciation as a «chronic, progressing illness, characterised by toler-ance, addiction and pathological changes in internal organs».2

The word “alcohol” is has two likely sources, both in Arabic language: al-kuhl (antimony, soft, fine powder), or al-ghul (evil spirit). Alcohols form a group of organic chemical compounds, derivatives of hydrocarbons.3

Anthropological studies confirm that alcohol has been pre-sent since the very beginning of the history of the human kind

1 Lowe G., Foxcroft D. R., Sibley D., Picie m�odzie�y a style �ycia w rodzinie,PARPA, Warszawa, 2000, 25.

2 Ba�andynowicz A., �rodowisko rodzinne z zachowania dewiacyjne dzieci i m�odzie�y, w: Bi�czycka–Anholcer M. (red.), Przemoc i agresja jako zjawiska spo�eczne, Polskie Towarzystwo Higieny Psychicznej, Warszawa, 2003, 112.

3 �ledzianowski J., Uzale�nienia w�ród dzieci i m�odzie�y szkolnej na przyk�adzie województwa �wi�tokrzyskiego, Akademia �wi�tokrzyska, Kielce, 2004, 65.

14 Chapter I______________________________________________________________________

and it was utilised for various purposes. It is possible to distin-guish five major functions of using alcohol: physiological (painkiller, nutritional); psychological (relieving tensions, di-minishing of anxiety); political (alcohol may be used in political conflicts); economic (alcohol as a source of national income); social (facilitating contacts, integration).4

According to J. Mellibruda, alcohol enables drinkers to:

- soothe unpleasant feelings, - protect oneself against unwanted information, - relieve inner restraints and fears, - facilitate and intensify contacts with other people, - experience unusual mental states.5

According to WHO World Health Report 2002, the risk of health complications increases after exceeding certain consump-tion levels (10 litres of pure alcohol per year for men and 7.5 li-tres for women). The research conducted by the State Agency for the Prevention of Alcohol-Related Problems (PARPA) re-vealed that in 2003 this level was exceeded by 10 per cent of the consumers of alcoholic drinks in Poland, which is nearly 2.5 million people.6

B. Habart claims that although the inclination towards alcohol may to a significant extent be determined genetically, it is not deter-mined fatalistically. In his opinion, the biological factor is not suffi-cient to develop addiction to alcohol. […] The biological nature of the chemical addiction is strongly rejected by M. Keller. While elaborat-ing causes of alcoholism, he writes: “Alcoholism is not caused by ad-dictive features of alcohol, which is proved by millions of alcohol drinkers who never become alcoholics.” The presence of the bio-chemical factor may increase the risk of becoming an alcoholic, but it is not an addiction sentence.7

4 Niewiadomska I., Alkohol, alkoholizm i ja, Fundacja Rozwoju KUL, Lublin, 2002, 105.

5 �ledzianowski J., op. cit., 65. 6 PARPA, Szkody zdrowotne i �miertelno� zwi�zane z nadu�ywaniem alkoholu, w:

�wiat Problemów, 12, 2004, 11. 7 �akomski M., Pomó� uzale�nionym!, Impuls, Kraków, 2007, 12-13.

The use of alcohol and nicotine in young people 15 _____________________________________________________________________

Alcohol poses a great hazard for young people. Any person, regardless the age, gender, education or intellectual level, may become an addict. An individual who drinks alcohol is not aware of the development of one’s own internal addiction.

The course of the alcoholic illness is faster and sharper in case of young people than in case of adults. The central nervous system is more responsive to the influence of alcohol and the addiction of young people begins as early as after two or three years of drinking alcohol. A young consumer of alcohol does not develop higher emotions, therefore a behaviour of such per-son is egoistic, coarse and often antisocial.8

Cz. Cekiera distinguishes three types of addictions to alco-hol:

Physical addiction – regular consumption of addictive sub-stance causes the incorporation of its particles into the cellular metabolism, thus it becomes necessary for proper biological homeostasis. If the use of the substance is discontinued, the ad-dicted organism displays withdrawal symptoms. There is also a developing tolerance towards the substance, which in other words may be described as an increased resistance of organism to the addictive substance.

Psychological addiction – it is a mental condition which is a consequence of using addictive substances and it displays in various desires to use such substances. If a substance is discon-tinued, negative mental states, such as depression or irritability, may occur.

Social addiction – it is related to using alcohol in a group, to which a given individual belong. Being in such group entails the necessity to follow rules which dominate there.9

8 Ka�don B., Profilaktyka alkoholowa w szkole, Wydzia� Nauk Spo�ecznych KUL, Stalowa Wola, 2003, 30.

9 Op. cit.

16 Chapter I______________________________________________________________________

According to E. M. Jellinek, there are four stages of the al-cohol addiction course: pre-alcoholic, prodromal, critical and chronic. Two first are symptomatic stages, two last ones imply a degree of addiction.

The first pre-alcoholic stadium is a social, occasional drink-ing to experience a relief, which subsequently changes into con-tinuous drinking so that an expected solace is reached. Drinking alcohol is a way to improve one’s frame of mind. During this stage, drinking alcohol is a pleasant experience and has no negative consequences.

The second stadium, defined as prodromal, begins at the point, where a person is not capable of remembering one’s ac-tions after drinking alcohol, even though such person was con-scious. People who do not develop an addiction may also ex-perience alcohol-related memory disturbances due to large quantities of consumed alcohol or due to physical or mental ex-haustion. During this stage, the attention of an individual is fo-cused on alcohol, one drinks in secret or alone and initiates so-cial meetings where a chance for drinking alcohol is likely to occur.

The third, critical stadium (acute) – an individual loses con-trol over the quantity of consumed alcohol and the symptoms of addiction are developing. One of such symptoms is self-deception (drinking person blames other people for his or her condition), which leads to isolation from one’s social environ-ment, untidiness, abandonment of work, avoiding contact with close people. The life of such individual revolves around drink-ing alcohol, other passions and interests are ceased, eating is disregarded and supplies of alcohol are made.

The fourth stage defined as chronic includes periods of pro-longed intoxication, or “binge drinking”, which may cause weakening of reasoning, dysfunctions of thinking and assess-ment of facts. The psychological interest in alcohol decreases, whereas the physical one grows. According to E.M. Jellinek,


approximately 10 per cent of alcoholics may experience alco-holic psychosis. Other symptoms which occur during this stage are anxiety states, tremor and deterioration of motor skills.10

Figure 1. The stages of the alcohol addiction

Reference: L. Cierpia�kowska, Psychopatologia, t. 15, SCHOLAR, Warsza-wa,2009, 209-210.

Another typology is provided by A. K�pi�ski.

Neurasthenic style – improving frame of mind, abreaction overstrain and the sense of overload.

Social style – facilitating contacts with other people. Heroic style – sense of power and elevation of self-esteem. Bacchanal style – intoxication after drinking alcohol. Suicidal style – «it is supposed to reduce the sense of suf-

fering defeat and help to forget about bitter experiences».11

10 Cierpia�kowska L., Psychopatologia, t. 15, SCHOLAR, Warszawa, 2009, 209-210.

11 Pospiszyl I., Patologie spo�eczne, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa, 2008, 150.

pre-addiction period

increasing tolerance

lost control over the

quantity of consumed

alcohol

addiction period

decreasing tolerance

pre-alcoholic stage prodromal stage acute stage chronic stage

18 Chapter I______________________________________________________________________

2. Reasons of using alcohol by young people

Recent studies conducted in different European countries in-dicate that initiation age of alcohol consumption by adolescents is lowering.12

There are many factors that lead young people to abuse al-cohol. Adolescence is a period when boundaries are eagerly crossed. Young people strive to adjust to the surrounding world. Very often their desire to belong to a group makes them to reach for a first glass of alcoholic drink.

It is particularly dangerous that young people perceive them-selves as regular and eligible customers of alcohol and tobacco businesses.13

Numerous authors undertake attempts to find causes of alco-hol disease. According to Woynarowska, the reasons of the dis-ease may be divided into two groups: individual and environ-mental. The individual features include: «gender, age, knowl-edge and previous experience in using various substances, psy-chological predispositions […] necessity to increase own self-esteem and willingness to improve one’s frame of mind».14

Among the environmental reasons for using alcohol there is family (abnormal relations within a family, no adequate pat-terns, no understanding from parents), school (distance exhib-ited by peers, difficulties in learning process, conflicts and lack of understanding with teachers). Drinking alcohol by young people may also be facilitated by peer groups (encouragement

12 Li F., Barrera M., Hops H., Fisher K.J., The longitudinal influence of peers on the development of alcohol use in late adolescence: A growth mixture analysis, Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 25(3), 2002, 293-315.

13 Hayes L., Smart D., Toumbourou J., Sanson A., Parenting influences on adoles-cent alcohol use, Australian Government: Australian Institute of Family Studies, http://www.aifs.gov.au?institute/pubs/resreport10/alcohol.html, 2004.

14 Woynarowska B., U�ywanie substancji psychoaktywnych, w: Woynarowska B. (red.), Zdrowie i szko�a, PZWL, Warszawa, 2000, 209; 214-216.


by peers to try alcohol, desire to impress and to belong to a group, sense of isolation).15

The aetiology of alcoholism should be sought while taking into account several most important factors, which include: so-ciological conditioning, individual personality traits as well as organic, chemical and genetic features.

Sociological conditions are mainly shaped by customs, cul-tural, religious and other traditions, but also by examples set by parents to their children.

While considering causes of alcoholism within the psycho-logical dimension, it is possible to observe such conditions as individual traits of personality, a system of values followed by a given individual as well as determined priorities. Numerous scientific studies reveal that alcoholism is most frequently ex-perienced by emotionally-unstable and immature people with low self-esteem and difficulties in controlling their behaviour as well as in coping with life difficulties.16

Alcohol also provides a “fun-improving” function, since it is indicated by many young people as a necessary ingredient of parties and joy. Drinking alcohol is supposed to help young people to feel free and relaxed as well as to “improve commu-nication”. Alcohol is also drunk to show off or to overcome shyness. When entering the adolescence period, young people are embarrassed, hesitant and often ashamed of their adult and mature physicality and certain social situations make them feel uncomfortable. Therefore, alcohol is considered by many young people as a “trigger” which helps to acquire self-esteem. The majority of adolescents think that by drinking alcohol they may forget all problems and soothe existential torment during the

15 Woynarowska B. (red.), Zdrowie i szko�a, PZWL, Warszawa, 2000, 209; 214-216.

16 Kozak S., Patologie w�ród dzieci i m�odzie�y. Leczenie i profilaktyka, Difin sp. z o.o.; Warszawa, 2007, 81-83; 87.

20 Chapter I______________________________________________________________________

adolescence period. If a young person seeks an escape in alco-hol, it may indicate at his or her problems at school, at difficul-ties in matching their peers in terms of emotional and social de-velopment. Such individuals feel rejected by their social milieu and find it difficult to establish contacts with close people.17 Cu-riosity is another important factor that triggers the consumption of alcohol by adolescents. According to a theory of tension re-duction of J. Conger and a theory of social learning of A. Ban-dura, young people drink alcohol to reduce levels of anxiety and tension as well as the power of negative emotions that they sense.18

Adolescents also drink alcohol to display their maturity, stress their generational individuality which is projected by al-cohol consumption and to adjust to their drinking friends. As found in research conducted by L. Hayes, D. Smart, J. Toum-bourou and A. Sanson, adolescents begin and continue drinking alcohol because they are convinced that drinking is not bad or harmful.19

2.1. Family and alcohol consumption by adolescents

The period of adolescence is a unique stage in the develop-ment process of every human being. The influence of family is the first factor which shapes behaviour related to drinking alco-hol.

«The influence of family and peers as well behaviours of specific people and personal traits are always linked with abuse of different substances by children and youth.»20

Researchers conducted in Great Britain, Sweden and Poland reveal that family has a substantial impact upon socialisation of

17 W�grzecka-Gilu� J., ABC alkoholu, Remedium, 9, 2001, IV-V. 18 Jarczy�ska J., Picie alkoholu przez m�odzie� w okresie dorastania a wybrane

czynniki w �rodowisku rodzinnym, PARPA, Warszawa, 2009, 34. 19 Hayes L., Smart D., Toumbourou J., Sanson A., op. cit.20 Mc Whirter J.J.,. McWhirter B.T, McWhirter A.M., Zagro�ona m�odzie�, PAR-

PA, Warszawa, 2008, 134.


children, which includes the shaping of alcohol consumption patterns and attitudes of children towards alcohol.

The factors which form these behaviours and attitudes are, among other things:

attitude of parents to the phenomenon of using alcohol by adolescents;

parents who drink alcohol (model pattern of drinking); providing support to a child (family resources, unity,

emotional bond); control of behaviours (direct control through which a

child is required to follow certain rules as well as indi-rect control, founded upon the power of persuasion).

«Extreme values of the above factors may lead to extreme behaviours – either to abstinence of to alcohol abuse.»21

As far as the theory of social learning is concerned, it is im-portant to focus upon two key factors which should be stressed in terms of the family dynamics, while taking into consideration the use of alcohol by adolescents. These factors are imitation and parental attitude. The role of parents in shaping their chil-dren’s behaviours is substantial. Bandura claims that when peo-ple observe others and see their actions, they learn how to be-have, how to perform certain activities and then put these activi-ties in practice. When parents and older siblings drink alcohol, they convey their drinking pattern to the younger members of the family. If parents drink regularly, but within reasonable amount, it is most likely that such pattern of drinking – regu-larly but sensibly – will be developed by their children. If par-ents drink continuously and in large quantities, they provide such model which begins to operate within their children’s cog-

21 Zieli�ski A., Ewolucja wzorów u�ywania alkoholu w�ród dorastaj�cej m�odzie�y w Polsce w XX wieku, PARPA, Warszawa 2006, 53-54.

22 Chapter I______________________________________________________________________

nitive model. Non-drinking parents provide a model of absen-teeism for their children.22

While analysing different strategies of behaviour shaping it is im-portant to take into consideration both parents’ convictions and atti-tudes as well as children’s age. Parents’ approval for drinking alcohol by their children may take various forms:

prescriptive approval – parents allow their children to drink small amounts of alcohol during special venues and only in parent’s pres-ence;

authoritative approval – parents do not worry about their children’s drinking as long as drinking is considered sensible;

parental indifference – parents display no interest in their children’s drinking.23

Parents who drink alcohol so as to cope with difficult life situations may also influence their children and shape such inef-fective methods of tackling problems. When children observe that their parents drink alcohol to combat stress, they perceive drinking as an efficient method of dealing with stressful situa-tions and do the same later.24

The family message is extremely important in shaping proper pro-health habits and behaviours of young people. Nu-merous educational circles indicate at similar values as being substantial in terms of addiction prophylaxis.25 The results of researches reveal, however, that the sole message of choice of

22 Lowe G., Foxcroft D. R., Sibley D., op. cit.23 Prajsner B., Alkohol, dzieci i rodzice czyli… Ile zale�y od nas samych, Reme-

dium, 1, 2001, VIII. 24 Pa�stwowa Agencja Rozwi�zywania Problemów Alkoholowych, Picie alkoholu

w ró�nych okresach �ycia, PARPA, Warszawa, 2000, 107. 25 Davidov E., Schmidt P., Schwartz S.H., Bringing Values Back In: The Adequacy

of the European Social Survey to Measure Values in 20 countries, Public Opinion Quar-terly, 72(3), 2008, 420-445; Schwartz S.H., Universals in the content and structure of values: theoretical advances and empirical tests in 20 countries, in: Zanna M. (ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, Academic Press, New York, 25, 1992, 1-65; Schwartz S.H., Bardi A., Value hierarchies across cultures – Taking a similarities perspective, Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 32(3), 2001, 268-290; Chen X., Tang X., Li X., Stanton B., Li H., Core Human Values and Their Interactions with Pro-Tobacco Factors on Cigarette Smoking: The role of Factors not Explicitly Related to a Risk Behavior, Californian Journal of Health Promotion, 6(1), 2008, 23-39.


values is not a sufficient protection against undertaking risk be-haviours by young people, in particular with respect to using al-cohol and cigarettes.26 Therefore it is necessary to elaborate a family support system (particularly in the risk groups) so that families are able to handle problems of their teenage children.

There are many families in Poland where parents are ad-dicted to alcohol, which makes their children very likely to fol-low parent’s footsteps. There are also numerous peer groups where drinking alcohol is the fundamental requirement of membership and it is not unusual to find teenagers attending elementary schools among their members.27

2.2. The influence of a peer groups upon consumption of alcohol by young’s people

For many young people drinking alcohol becomes an ex-perience that carries them into adult life. Drinking is also a way of joining peer group, as youth try to imitate behaviours of their friends, which is why it is very difficult for adolescents to re-fuse drinking alcohol.

Forcing to drink alcohol is a hazardous habit that exists among young people. It is perceived as a test for friendship, bond and trust. It is confirmed by the research conducted in Finland, which was focused on bonds between teenagers and the impact of such bonds upon undertaking risk behaviours, in-cluding drinking alcohol and smoking cigarettes. With regard to both drinking and smoking, the choice of one’s milieu and so-

26 Young R., West P., Do ‘good values’ lead to ‘good’ health-behaviours? Longitu-dinal associations between young people’s values and later substance – use, Public Health, 10, 2010, 165.

27 �akomski M., op. cit., 25-26.

24 Chapter I______________________________________________________________________

cialising with it had a substantial impact upon initiation and continuation of using alcohol and cigarettes.28

Seventy-five per cent of drinking teenagers admitted that they consume alcohol at parties or similar meeting with their friends. It is evident that family and peers have a great influence on drinking alcohol and premature experimenting with alcohol during adolescence period.

Self-esteem of the maturing adolescents may be one of the reasons for drinking alcohol. A self-confident person boldly finds one’s place among other people, thus gaining their respect easier and faster. People with high self-esteem are not suscepti-ble to the influence of their milieu, they are capable of resisting majority and they are always able to express their opinion. Such people are not embarrassed to refuse drinking. A self-confident teenager will not be made by his or her peers to drink alcohol. By contrast, people with low self-esteem have difficulties in coping with everyday problems and stress. Meeting new people is troublesome for shy adolescents. They strive to adjust to their milieu and because they dread rejection by the group, they submit to peer influence.

One of the substantial elements fostering the use of alcohol is personal traits, which makes a person an individuality and a unique human being. This includes a desire of individual achievements, confirmation of own value, a pursuit of knowl-edge and self-knowledge, self-realisation as well as searching for the meaning of life.29

28 Kiuru N., Burk W.J., Laursen B., Salmela-Aro K., Nurmi J.E., Pressure to drink but not to smoke: disentangling selection and socialization in adolescent peer networks and peer groups, Journal of Adolescence, 33(6), 2010, 801-812.

29 Szyma�ska M., Samoocena m�odzie�y maj�cej kontakt z alkoholem, Problemy Opieku�czo–Wychowawcze, 4, 2008, 43-44.

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