Annals Warsaw University of Life Sciences Forestry and Wood ...

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Annals

Warsaw University of

Life Sciences

Forestry and Wood Technology No 93 Warsaw 2016

Contents:

ANDRZEJ ANTCZAK, DOROTA ADASZEWSKA, JANUSZ ZAWADZKI, MONIKA MARCHWICKA “The study of chemical composition of juvenile poplar branches (Populus deltoides x maximowiczii)” 5

GRZEGORZ BERNATOWICZ, EWA DOBROWOLSKA, PAWEŁ KOZAKIEWCZ, MIECZYSŁAW MATEJAK “Das „Kritische Repertorium der Forstwissenschaft und ihrer Hilfswissenschaften“ von Wilhelm Pfeil 1830 als Beispiel des Reichtums an Fachliteratur über Holz und Holzerzeugnisse im 19. Jh. Teil 2” 12

WOJCIECH CIURZYCKI, KATARZYNA MARCISZEWSKA „Flora of pine forests on former farmlands and in ancient forests in the Chojnów Forest District” 30 WOJCIECH CIURZYCKI, KATARZYNA MARCISZEWSKA “Vegetation of pine forests on former farmlands and in ancient forests in the Chojnów Forest District” 37

EWA DOBROWOLSKA, PETER NIEMZ „Schutzbehandlung des Holzes” 44

AGNIESZKA JANKOWSKA, TOMASZ KARKOWSKI “Determination of surface free energy of selected tropical wood species from Africa” 57

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PAWEŁ KOZAKIEWICZ, AGNIESZKA BURDA “Physical and mechanical properties and anatomy of breaking buckthorn wood (Frangula alnus Mill.)” 64

MÁRIA KRAJČOVIČOVÁ ANDREJ CHUDÝ ĽUBOMÍR JAVOREK JÁN SVOREŇ “Analysis of design solution the combined scissor lift” 70

SŁAWOMIR KRZOSEK, PIOTR MAŃKOWSKI, JUSTYNA BIERNACKA „Neuheit beim Profilieren im Sägewerk” 79

AGNIESZKA KUROWSKA, PAWEŁ KOZAKIEWICZ, TOMASZ GŁADZIKOWSKI “Ultrasonic waves propagation velocity and dynamic modulus of elasticity of European oak, European aspen, American cherry and wenge wood” 83

AGNIESZKA KUROWSKA, PAWEŁ KOZAKIEWICZ “Determination of the wettability of gaboon wood (Aucoumea klaineana Pierre)” 89

AGNIESZKA KUROWSKA, PAWEŁ KOZAKIEWICZ “Influence of ultraviolet radiation on colour of European ash sapwood and heartwood (Fraxinus excelsior L.)” 94

AGNIESZKA KUROWSKA, PAWEŁ KOZAKIEWICZ Determination of the wettability of European lime wood (Tilia cordata Mill.) as sculptures and painting supports material

PIOTR MAŃKOWSKI, PAWEŁ KOZAKIEWICZ, SŁAWOMIR KRZOSEK “Compression strength parallel to grain of lime wood impregnated with Paraloid B-72 solution in butyl acetate” 105

JAKUB MARKIEWICZ, PIOTR MAŃKOWSKI, RAFAŁ ZAPŁATA, BOGUSŁAW ANDRES “Use of photogrammetry in the detection of wood defects. Part 1” 110

IZABELA PODOBAS “Strategies of the choice of the type of protection of an industrial pattern in the furniture industry – how companies can effectively safeguard themselves against imitation” 115

ANNA POLICIŃSKA-SERWA, PAWEŁ KOZAKIEWICZ, SŁAWOMIR KRZOSEK “Compression strength parallel to grain of structural ekki wood” 122

AGNIESZKA ROLA-JARZĘBOWSKA “Challenges development of the Polish furniture industry in the world” 128

VALERJAN ROMANOVSKI, PAWEŁ KOZAKIEWICZ, MARIUSZ MAMIŃSKI, ALBINA JEGOROWA “Исследования эффекта усиления минерального основания для деревянных полов посредством шлифования и грунтования” 134

VALERJAN ROMANOVSKI, EWA DOBROWOLSKA, PAWEŁ KOZAKIEWICZ, ALBINA JEGOROWA “Влияние микроклиматических условий на влажность и размеры некоторых пород древесины используемых в производстве полов” 141

RENATA TOCZYŁOWSKA-MAMIŃSKA, KAROLINA SZYMONA, MONIKA KLOCH „Utilization of cellulose biomass by anaerobic digestion. Optimization of microbial fuel cell (MFC) parameters” 148

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Board of reviewers:

Piotr Beer Piotr Borysiuk Dorota Dziurka Emila Grzegorzewska Ľubomír Javorek Grzegorz Kowaluk Paweł Kozakiewicz Krzysztof Krajewski Sławomir Krzosek Janusz Zawadzki Tomasz Zielenkiewicz

Scientific council :

Kazimierz Orłowski (Poland) Ladislav Dzurenda (Slovakia) Miroslav Rousek (Czech Republic) Nencho Deliiski (Bulgaria) Olena Pinchewska (Ukraine) Włodzimierz Prądzyński (Poland)

Warsaw University of Life Sciences Press

e-mail: [email protected]

SERIES EDITOR

Ewa Dobrowolska ISSN 1898-5912 Marcin Zbieć PRINT:

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Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences - SGGW Forestry and Wood Technology № 93, 2016: 5-11 (Ann. WULS - SGGW, For. and Wood Technol. 93, 2016)

The study of chemical composition of juvenile poplar branches (Populus

deltoides x maximowiczii)

ANDRZEJ ANTCZAK, DOROTA ADASZEWSKA, JANUSZ ZAWADZKI, MONIKA MARCHWICKA Department of Wood Science and Wood Protection, Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW Abstract: The study of chemical composition of juvenile poplar branches (Populus deltoides x maximowiczii). The aim of this work was determination of chemical composition of the poplar annual shoots collected from a plantation energy crop. The whole of the biomass, i.e. wood as well as bark and leaves, were taken into consideration, all the components being compared in the aspect of suitability for the bioethanol production process. Among the determinations of chemical composition the contents of extractives, cellulose, holocellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin were investigated. Generally, classical gravimetric methods were used, but in case of lignin a spectrophotometric method with acetyl bromide was used. On the basis of the studies performed the juvenile poplar wood was found to possess significant cellulose and hemicelluloses contents (respectively 42.6% and 42.9%) and also low lignin and extractives contents (respectively 19.0% and 2.3%). A remarkably desirable chemical composition of the Populus deltoides x maximowiczii wood opens up sound prospects for its use in the bioethanol production. As concerns the bark and leaves, their use in this process may prove much more cumbersome in view of a high content of the hydrolysis and fermentation inhibitors such as lignin (respectively 12.2% and 25.3%) and extractives (respectively 18.2% and 20.1%). Keywords: chemical composition, poplar, wood, bark, leaves, biofuels INTRODUCTION

Biomass is considered today a feedstock that arouses considerable interest in industry all the world over. One of an economically viable way of biomass uses is its exploitation as a renewable energy source. Biomass can be used in energy-production application as a result of direct combustion of solid (wood, straw or hay), gaseous (biogas) and liquid (oils or alcohols) biofuels. Woody biomass ranks as one of the major biomass kinds. Wood, bark and leaves represent a significant energetic potential in particular in the aspect of energy crops. One of the energy crops is poplar which offers the convenience of being grown on plantations. Its characteristic features include a substantial and rapid biomass growth (8 to 12 t/ha) (Zabielski, 1998), and additionally it can be used for reinstatement of the re-zoned industrial land. Another option is the converting of biomass into solid, gaseous and liquid fuels. A factor of significance in the liquid biofuels production (such as bioethanol, biobutanol or biodiesel) is the chemical composition of the biomass. The woody biomass of poplar like other plants is known to be built of both structural components (cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin) and of nonstructural components referred to extractives (tannins, waxes, fats or minerals). The knowledge of chemical composition of a biomass is important from the standpoint of the suitability of the biomass for the biofuels production process. The monitoring of chemical composition is also important to the correct determination of the optimal tree-cutting time in a given energy crop. It is now believed that the use of lignocellulosic biomass to bioethanol production is one of the most promising processes (Szewczyk, 2010). In the process of the chemical substances that occur in the biomass the most important are the sugars – cellulose and hemicelluloses which by way of hydrolysis and fermentation may be converted to bioethanol (Wyman et al., 2005; Burczyk, 2009; Leja et al., 2009; Sannigrahi et al., 2010). Lignin and extractives on the other hand are undesirable as they hinder the hydrolysis and fermentation processes (Olsson and Hahn-Hägerdal, 1996; Dinus, 2001; Thygesen et al., 2012; Arora et al., 2013).

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In view of the foregoing, the target of our research here was to determine chemical composition of the poplar annual shoots collected from a plantation energy crop. The whole of the biomass, i.e. wood as well as bark and leaves, were taken into consideration, all the components being compared in the aspect of suitability for the bioethanol production process.

MATERIALS AND METHODS In the study the branches were taken from three different annual trees of the fast-growing

Maximowicz poplar species (Populus deltoides x maximowiczii). The biomass under investigation comprised wood, bark and leaves. The Maximowicz poplar biomass came from the experimental field Wolica of the Department of Plant Genetics, Breeding and Biotechnology, Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, Warsaw University of Life Sciences. Prior to the analysis of chemical composition the material was properly comminuted. For the determination of the content of the extractives, cellulose and holocellulose the biomass fraction taken ranged between 0.43 and 1.02 mm, whereas for the determination of lignin content, the fraction was below 0.43 mm. Prior to every determination the ground material (wood, bark and leaves) was dried to a constant weight in a vacuum drier at 60oC. To achieve the most reliable results, each determination was performed at least two or three times. In the case of lignin the determinations were repeated even as many as five times.

First, the extractives content was determined in the biomass under study. The azeotropic chloroform/ethanol mixture in a 93:7 ratio by weight was used (Antczak et al., 2006). The extraction was carried out in a Soxhlet apparatus after the procedure reported by Krutul (2002). Depending on the biomass handled different extraction time was applied, and notably: for wood 10h, for bark 30h and for leaves 50h. The material thus extracted was taken for the analysis for the content of cellulose, holocellulose (for hemicelluloses, from the difference between holocellulose and cellulose contents) and lignin.

The cellulose content was determined by Seifert method in accordance with the procedure described by Krutul (2002) and with Polish Standard PN-92/P-50092. In relation to the procedure reported in the literature only one alteration was introduced, notably that for one gram of biomass were taken: 12 cm3 of acetylacetone, 4 cm3 of dioxane and 3 cm3 of concentrated hydrochloric acid. The double amount of the reagents employed affords better results, as the material studied is entirely immersed in Seifert mixture. In consequence, the cellulose obtained is of higher purity. The remaining conditions of the analysis were analogous to those recommended in the literature cited.

The lignin content was determined spectrophotometrically with acetyl bromide in accordance with the procedure reported (Iiyama and Wallis, 1988; Hatfield et al., 1999; Rodrigues et al., 1999; Antczak et al., 2013). In the case of wood samples the solubilisation time at 50oC was 2h, whereas for the bark and leaves samples the time required was longer being equal to 3h at the same temperature. The other conditions of the analysis were analogous to those reported in the literature cited.

Determination of the holocellulose content was made using sodium chlorite according to the procedure suggested by Krutul (2002) and compliant with Polish Standard PN-92/P-50092. The number of heating cycles in a mixture of sodium chlorite and glacial acetic acid was dependent on the content of lignin.With reference to poplar wood the procedure involved four heating cycles in sodium chlorite/glacial acetic acid mixture. As concerns bark the procedure involved three heating cycles and for leaves, the analogous procedure consisted of as many as five cycles. The other conditions of the analytical procedure were, as previously, analogous to those reported in the literature cited.

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The chemical composition of the branches sampled from three various trees of an

annual Populus deltoides x maximowiczii was determined. The percentage content of individual components (extractives, cellulose, lignin and holocellulose) in wood, bark and leaves was compared. The results of the comparison are presented in Figs 1-4.

The extractives content is presented in Fig. 1. Expectedly, the most low-molecular-weight compounds that are soluble in a chloroform/ ethanol mixture, occur in leaves (20.1%) and bark (18.2%), the least in wood (the content averaged for three branches is 2.3%). Hence, if only for no other reason the wood appears to be the most attractive feedstock in the bioethanol production process. Too large a content of the extractives may adversely affect the yield of the hydrolysis and fermentation processes. Their earlier removal, on the other hand, may be troublesome and may generate extra expenses. The extractives content determined in the wood of the Populus deltoides x maximowiczii is in agreement with the pertinent literature data. According to a number of researchers the extractives content in a juvenile wood of the poplar stays in the range of 1.3 to 3.2% (Alvarez and Tjeerdsma, 1995; Kopitovic et al., 1996; Goyal et al., 1999; Klasnja et al., 2003).

2.3 2.2 2.3

18.2

20.1

0

5

10

15

20

25

ex

tra

cti

ves

con

ten

t [%

]

Fig. 1. The percentage content of extractives in wood, bark and leaves from branches of the fast-

growing Maximowicz poplar (Populus deltoides x maximowiczii)

The results of cellulose content as determined by Seifert method are presented in Fig. 2. Here the most cellulose content is present in wood (the average content from three determinations for three branches was 42.6%), less in the bark (25.8%) and the least in the leaves (16.0%). Analogous results can be found in other communications. According to Mandre et al. (2011) the cellulose content determined in the wood from annual poplar branches was equal to 41.0% and 41.3%. Meanwhile in the wood derived from semiannual poplar branches the cellulose content reached a value of 40.7% (Antczak et al. 2014). In the leaves that came from the annual poplar branches the cellulose content according to the results reported by Mandre et al. (2011) is on a similar level as in this work, that is 14.5% and 16.1%. Here again wood was found to be the best feedstock for bioethanol production. In this process the more cellulose in a feedstock, the more attractive it is for this commercial application.

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43.4 42.3 42.0

25.8

16.0

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

cell

ulo

se c

on

ten

t [%

]

Fig. 2. The percentage content of cellulose in wood, bark and leaves from branches of the fast-growing

Maximowicz poplar (Populus deltoides x maximowiczii)

19.818.1

19.0

12.3

25.3

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

lig

nin

co

nte

nt

[%]

Fig. 3. The percentage content of lignin in wood, bark and leaves from branches of the fast-growing Maximowicz poplar (Populus deltoides x maximowiczii)

The results of lignin content are shown in Fig. 3. As can be judged from consideration

of these results, the most lignin content occurs in the leaves (25.3%) that come from the annual branches of the Populus deltoides x maximowiczii, less lignin occurs in the wood of this tree (the average value from three branches is 19.0%), and the least in the young bark (12.2%). The results for lignin content are rather interesting and have been found to coincide with the literature data.

According to Chauvet’s studies (1987) the lignin content in the leaves reached a similar level to that reported in this communication, being equal to 23.2%. In the juvenile wood the level of this substance stays within the range of 15.5 to 26.4% (Alvarez and Tjeerdsma, 1995; Kopitovic et al., 1996; Goyal et al., 1999; Klasnja et al., 2003; Mandre et al. 2011). Based on the results shown for the lignin content the leaves were shown again to be the least attractive feedstock to the bioethanol production process. Too high a lignin content makes the

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hydrolysis process more difficult and may in addition be the reason for the formation in the pretreatment process of the substances in considerable amounts that would inhibit the hydrolysis and fermentation.

85.5 85.6 85.578.8

66.7

42.0 43.3 43.5

53.0 50.7

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100su

ga

rs

co

nte

nt

[%]

holocellulose

hemicelluloses

Fig. 4. The percentage content of holocellulose and hemicelluloses in wood, bark and leaves from

branches of the fast-growing Maximowicz poplar (Populus deltoides x maximowiczii)

The results of the holocellulose and hemicelluloses content are shown in Fig. 4. The relations plotted here are analogous to the results for cellulose content presented earlier in Fig. 2. The most holocellulose is accumulated in the juvenile wood of Populus deltoides x maximowiczii (the average content from three branches is 85.5%), less is present in the bark (78.8%) and the least in the leaves (66.7%). The literature opinions communicated on the subject are in agreement with the findings from this study. The references in point (Alvarez and Tjeerdsma, 1995; Kopitovic et al., 1996; Goyal et al., 1999; Klasnja et al., 2003) specify the holocellulose content in juvenile poplar wood ranges 69.8 - 85.7%. Attention should also be called to the fact that irrespective of the biomass under study the hemicelluloses occur in a large quantity. This is a frequently occurring effect particularly for juvenile specimens (Prosiński, 1984). The highest hemicelluloses concentration was found in young bark and leaves (53.0% and 50.7%, respectively) and the lowest, in wood (the average value from three branches was 42.9%). The hemicelluloses fraction (in particular the xylan present in the poplar) is usable in the biofuels production process. To accomplish this objective, suitable organisms have to be selected which would secure high-effectiveness hydrolysis and fermentation processes to bioethanol.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

To summarize, from among the biomass kinds examined, wood should be credited with the highest potential for bioethanol production. On the basis of the study performed the juvenile poplar wood was found to possess significant cellulose and hemicelluloses contents and also low lignin and extractives contents. A remarkably desirable chemical composition of the Populus deltoides x maximowiczii wood opens up sound prospects for its use in the bioethanol production. As concerns the bark and leaves, their use in this process may prove much more cumbersome in view of a high content of the hydrolysis and fermentation inhibitors such as lignin and extractives (fatty acids, tannins and sterols). A suitable

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purification process for such a biomass could contribute to a more complete consumption of the feedstock resulting in some extra bioethanol made.

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24.WYMAN C., DECKER S., HIMMEL M., BRADY J., SKOPEC C., VIIKARI L., 2005: Hydrolysis of cellulose and hemicellulose, In: Dumitriu S. (ed) Polysaccharides: Structural Diversity and Functional Versatility, New York.

25.ZABIELSKI S., 1998: Plantacyjna uprawa drzew i krzewów szybko rosnących, WAR, Poznań.

Streszczenie: Badanie składu chemicznego młodocianych pędów topoli (Populus deltoides x maximowiczii). Celem pracy było oznaczenie składu chemicznego jednorocznych pędów topoli pochodzących z uprawy plantacyjnej. Pod uwagę wzięto całą biomasę, czyli zarówno drewno, jak i korę oraz liście, które porównano pod kątem przydatności w technologii produkcji bioetanolu. Spośród oznaczeń składu chemicznego zbadano zawartość substancji ekstrakcyjnych, celulozy, holocelulozy, hemiceluloz i ligniny. Generalnie, zastosowano metody klasyczne wagowe, natomiast w przypadku ligniny użyto metodę spektrofotometryczną z bromkiem acetylu. Na podstawie wykonanych badań stwierdzono, że młodociane drewno topoli odznacza się dużą zawartością celulozy i hemiceluloz (odpowiednio 42,6% i 42,9%) oraz również małą zawartością ligniny i substancji ekstrakcyjnych (odpowiednio 19,0% i 2,3%). Bardzo korzystny skład chemiczny drewna Populus deltoides x maximowiczii stwarza realne perspektywy jego wykorzystania w technologii produkcji bioetanolu. Z kolei, odnośnie kory i liści, ich wykorzystanie w tej technologii może być dużo bardziej kłopotliwe z uwagi na zawartość znacznych ilości inhibitorów procesu hydrolizy i fermentacji takich jak lignina (odpowiednio 12,2% i 25,3%) oraz substancje uboczne (odpowiednio 18,2% i 20,1%). Acknowledgements: The work was funded by project PBS1/A8/16/2013 within the Applied Research Programme of the National Centre for Research and Development

Corresponding author: Andrzej Antczak Department of Wood Science and Wood Protection, Warsaw University of Life Sciences (SGGW) 159 Nowoursynowska St., 02-776 Warsaw, Poland e-mail: [email protected]

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Das „Kritische Repertorium der Forstwissenschaft und ihrer

Hilfswissenschaften“ von Wilhelm Pfeil 1830 als Beispiel des Reichtums an

Fachliteratur über Holz und Holzerzeugnisse im 19. Jh.

Teil 2 GRZEGORZ BERNATOWICZ, EWA DOBROWOLSKA1, PAWEŁ KOZAKIEWCZ1, MIECZYSŁAW MATEJAK1

1)Department of Wood Science and Wood Preservation, Faculty of Wood Technology, Warsaw University of Life Sciences - SGGW, 159 Nowoursynowska St., 02-776 Warsaw

Abstract: Das „Kritische Repertorium der Forstwissenschaft und ihrer Hülfswissenschaften“ von Wilhelm Pfeil 1830 als Beispiel des Reichtums an Fachliteratur über Holz und Holzerzeugnisse im 19. Jh. (Teil 2). Im nachfolgenden Artikel bringen die Autoren eine weitere (zweite) Auswahl aus dem von Prof. Wilhelm Pfeil verfassten Repertorium der Forstwissenschaft, das eine Zusammenstellung von Abhandlungen über die Holzeigenschaften enthält, um aufzuzeigen, wie umfangreich die Fachliteratur zu diesem Thema schon Anfang des 19. Jh. war. Die Titel der Bücher wurden von den Autoren in zweifacher Weise angegeben: Zum einen, wie sie von Prof. Pfeil zitiert wurden, und zum anderen, wie sie in den Katalogen der Bibliotheken im 21. Jh. zu finden sind (kursiv neben den Originaltiteln).1

Schlüsselwörter: königlich preußische höhere Forstlehranstalt in Neustadt-Eberswalde, Holzeigenschaften, Bibliothek Forstakademien nennt man diejenigen öffentlichen Lehranstalten, auf welchen die Forstwissenschft in ihrem ganzen Umfang gelehrt wird. Mit der Abnahme der Wälder und der Zunahme der Bevölkerung erkannte man die Wichtigkeit einer intensiveren und forstmäßigen Bewirtschaftung, und damit trat die Notwendigkeit hervor, sachlich gebildete Forstbeamte zu haben. So errichtete zuerst von Zanthier zu Ilsenburg am Harz in der Mitte des 18. Jh. Eine praktische Lehranstalt, welcher nach dessen Tode 1788 andere folgten, wie die von Haase zu Lautenberg 1780, von Uslar zu Herzberg 1790, von Hartig zu Hungen 1791, von Cotta zu Zillbach 1790, von Drais zu Pforzheim 1799 u. s. w. Die erste öffentliche Forstakademie wurde 1770 unter Gleidisch in Berlin errichtet. Da man fühlte, dass eine größere theoretische Bildung erforderlich, ging zum Teil der forstliche Unterricht gegen das Ende des 18. Jh. an die Kameralschulen über, welche zu Mainz, Mannheim und Lauter begründet wurden. Aber auch diese genügten nicht, indem man begriff, wie für die forstliche Bildung eine Verschmelzung der Theorie und Praxis notwendig sei. Den ersten Versuch dazu machte Herzog Karl von Würtemberg 1783 durch Errichtung des Forstinstituts zu Hohenheim, welchem mehrere ähnliche Anstalten folgten, wie die zu Kiel 1785, zu Freiburg im Breigau 1791, zu Dreißigacker 1801, zu Mariabrunn 1814, zu Tharand 1816 u. s. w. Deutschland besitzt genwärtig die höhern Forstlehranstalten zu Neustadt – Eberswalde, zu Mariabrunn bei Wien, zu Aschaffenburg, zu Aussee und zu Eisenach. (Allg. Deutsche Real-Enzyklopädie, Brockhaus 1865). (Der kursive Druck bezeichnet Ergänzungen der Verfasser)

1 Friedrich Wilhelm Leopold Pfeil (*28. März 1783 in Rammelburg; † 4. September 1859 in Warmbrunn) war

ein deutscher forstlicher Praktiker, Hochschullehrer und Forstwissenschaftler. Er gilt als die überragende forstliche Persönlichkeit seiner Zeit in Norddeutschland und gehört zu den so genannten „Forstlichen Klassikern“ von internationalem Rang.

13

EINSCHLAG DES KLAFTERHOLZES STAHL FORSTMAGAZIN; 3ter Bd. S. 25. 8ter Bd. S. 120. Allgemeines ökonomisches Forst-Magazin: in welchem allerhand nützliche Beobachtungen, Vorschläge und Versuche über die Wirthschaftliche, Policey- und Cameral-Gegenstände des sämtlichen Wald- Forst- und Holzwesens enthalten sind. Frankfurt : Mezler ; Leipzig, 1763-1769.

KRUENITZ ENZYKLOPÄDIE; 24TER BD. Die Oeconomische Encyclopädie ist eine zwischen 1773 und 1858 großteils von Johann Georg Krünitz geschaffene deutschsprachige Enzyklopädie. Sie gilt als wichtige Quelle zu Wirtschaft und Technik der Zeit zwischen Aufklärung und Industrialisierung.Das lexikalisch-alphabetisch aufgebaute Gesamtwerk umfasst rund 169.400 Seiten in 242 Bänden, die einzelnen Bände haben zwischen rund 600 und mehr als 900 Seiten. Band 24: Hirt - Holzung=Recht (1077) erschienen: 1781, 1790.

GRIESHEIM HANDBUCH DER GRUNDSÄTZLICHEN FORSTWIRTSCHAFT. ALTENBURG, HOFBUCHDRUCKEREI Griesheim, Ludwig Wilhelm von, 1805: Handbuch der natürlich grundsätzlichen Forstwirthschaft im Staate mit Hinsicht auf die Landökonomie und Wildbahn. Teil: 1. Altenburg: Hofbuchdruckerei, 1805. OECONOMIA FORENSIS; 6ter bd. S. 104 Oeconomia forensis oder, Inbegriff derjenigen Grundsätze und Bestimmungen, welche dem Juristen von der Landwirthschaft und dem Oekonomen von dem Rechte zu wissen nöthig sind: nach dem jetzigen Standpunkte des landwirthschaftlichen Gewerbes mit Berücksichtigung der preussischen Gesetzgebung und des gemeinen Rechts. bearbeitet von Johann Carl Kretzschmer. Berlin: A. Rücker, 1833-1835 .3 v. Oeconomia forensis oder kurzer Inbegriff derjenigen landwirthschaftlichen Wahrheiten, welche allen sowohl hohen als niedrigen Gerichts-Personen zu wissen nöthig; 6. Benekendorff, Karl Friedrich von 1713-1788. Berlin, Pauli. BURGSDORF FORSTHANDBUCH; 1ter Bd. S. 499 Burgsdorf, Friedrich August Ludwig von.1806. Forsthandbuch. Allgemeiner theoretisch-praktischer Lehrbegriff sämtlicher Forstwissenschaften. Berlin. ZEITSCHR. F. BAIERN. 4TER BD. 2TES, 3TES HEFT Zeitschrift für Baiern und die angränzenden Länder ; [1],10/12 = Bd. 4. 1816 = Okt. - Dez. JÄGERSCHMIDT HOLZTRANSSPORT UND FLOSSWESEN; 1TER BD. S. 193. Jägerschmid, Karl F. V , 1827: Handbuch für Holztransport- und Floßwesen: zum Gebrauche für Forstmänner und Holzhändler, und für solche, die es werden wollen. Teil: 1. Karlsruhe: Müller, 1827

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EINSCHLAG DES STOCKHOLZES MEM DE PARIS 1707; 1765; OECONOM. NACHRICHTEN DER GESELLSCHAFT IN SCHLESIEN Oekonomische Nachrichten der Patriotischen Gesellschaft in Schlesien, hrsg. von Balthasar Sprenger; Oekonomische Nachrichten der Patriotischen Gesellschaft in Schlesien, Breslau: In commission bey Wilhelm Gottlieb Korn, 1773-1779; Der Patriotischen Gesellschaft in Schlesien neue oekonomische Nachrichten : Patriotische Gesellschaft in Schlesien: Breslau ; Korn ; 1780-1784; ABHANDLUNGEN DER ÖKONOM. GESELLSCHAFT IN PETERSBURG. 9TER THEIL,77; Abhandlungen der Freyen Ökonomischen Gesellschaft in St. Petersburg zur Aufnahme des Ackerbaues und der Hauswirthschaft in Rußland: vom Jahre ...; aus d. Russ. übers (1767). Imperatorskoe Vol'noe Ėkonomičeskoe Obščestvo St. Petersburg ;Leipzig Mietau ;Riga : Hartknoch St. Petersburg ;Riga ;Leipzig ; [1.1765(1767) - 10/11.1768(1777); damit Ersch. eingest.] SAMMLUNGEN DER LANDWIRTHSCHAFTL. GESELLSCHAFT IN BERN. 1TER THEIL, STÜCK 1. Der Schweitzerischen Gesellschaft in Bern Sammlungen von landwirthschaftlichen Dingen. Schweitzerische Gesellschaft. Zürich: Heidegger, 1760-1761; Der Schweitzerischen Gesellschaft in Bern Sammlungen von landwirtschaftlichen Dingen. Schweitzerische Gesellschaft; Heidegger (Offizin, Zürich) Zürich: Bey Heidegger und Compagnie, 1760-1761 ABHANDLUNGEN DER SCHWED. AKAD. DER WISSENSCHAFTEN. 1756 Der Königl. Schwedischen Akademie der Wissenschaften neue Abhandlungen aus der Naturlehre, Haushaltungskunst und Mechanik. Heinsius

Annalen der Königlich Südpreuß. Oekonomischen Sozietät. Posen ; Leipzig. Annalen der sudpreuss Ökonom . Sozietät 1tes Heft DEUTSCHE ABHANDLUNGEN DER AKADEMIE DE WISSENSCHAFTEN IN BERLIN. 1788, 1789 Sammlung der deutschen Abhandlungen, welche in der königl. Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin vorgelesen worden, in den Jahren 1788 und 1789. Hrsg. 2004 Neue allgemeine Deutsche Bibliothek. 1793-1806, 1794, 12. Bd., 1. St., S. 198 – 204 KRUNITZ ENZYKLOPÄDIE 24TER BD. 628 Oeconomische Encyclopädie, oder allgemeines System der Land- Haus- und Staats-Wirthschaft in alphabetischer Ordnung. Band 24: Hirt - Holzungs=Recht (1077) erschienen: 1781, 1790

MOSER FORSTARCHIV. 13TER BD. S. 153 Forst Archiv zur Erweiterung der Forst- und Jagd-Wissenschaft und der Forst- und Jagd-Literatur / hrsg. von Wilhelm Gottfried von Moser. - Ulm: Stettin 1.1788 - 17.1796 NEUES FORSTARCHIV VON GATTERER. 8TER BD. S. 187 Neues Forst-Archiv zur Erweiterung der Forst- und Jagd-Wissenschaft und der Forst- und Jagd-Literatur, hrsg...von Wilhelm Jakob Gatterer Gatterer, Christoph Wilhelm Jakob *1759-1838* Ulm : Stettin, 1796-1807 SCHILLING VOM RODEN DER STÖCKE . LEIPZIG 1811 Schilling, Ernst Moritz 1823: Ueber das Roden der Stöcke. Eine forstwirthschaftliche Abhandlung. Leipzig. Müller †HEYER VORTHEILE DES VERFAHRENS BEI DEM BAUMRODEN. GIESSEN 1826

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Heyer, Karl Gustav 1826: Die Vortheile und das Verfahren beim Baumroden von Dr. Carl Gustav Heyer. Mit einer Kupfertafel. Giessen

HARTIG E. F. PRAKTISCHE ANLEITUNG ZUM BAUMRODEN. MARBURG 1827 Hartig, Ernst Friedrich 1827: Praktische Anleitung zum Baumroden nach den neuesten Versuchen., Marburg; Krieger. Allgemeines Forst- und Jagd-Archiv. 6, 6. 1822; Hartig, Georg Ludwig (1764-1837). - Stuttgart; Tübingen : Cotta, 1822. ANNALEN DER ÖKON. GESELLSCHAFT IN POTSDAM Annalen der Märkischen Oekonomischen Gesellschaft zu Potsdam. Königlich Preußische Märkische Ökonomische Gesellschaft; Potsdam ; Horvath ; 1794-1802. FORST- UND JAGDZEITUNG, 1825. NR. 97. 1827. 24. 58 Allgemeine Forst- und Jagdzeitung, 1825: Frankfurt a. M.: Sauerländer. MASCHINEN ZUM STOCKRODEN

SILBERSCHLAG. NACHRICHTEN VON EINIGEN ZU SCHÖNEICHE ANGESTELLTEN VERSUCHEN. BERLIN 1773 Silberschlag, Johann Esaias, 1773: Nachricht von einigen zu Schöneiche angestellten Versuchen die zurückgebliebenen Stubben der Kiehnbäume durch Maschinen auszurotten. Berlin; Buchhandlung der Realschule; 1773. KRUNITZ ENZYKLOPÄDIE; 3TER BD. Krunitz Enzyklopädie. Oeconomische Encyclopädie, oder allgemeines System der Land- Haus- und Staats-Wirthschaft in alphabetischer Ordnung. Band Band 3: Aug - Bauer-Wolle. erschienen: 1781, 1790. BÖSE HEBEMASCHINE BAUME ZU RODEN. GÖTTINGEN VANDENHOECK Böse, Jobst, 1771: [Verbesserte, deutlich beschriebene und gezeichnete Heb-Maschine] Jobst Bösens Hochadel hardenbergischen Verwalters zu Geismer ohnweit Göttingen, verbesserte, deutlich beschriebene und gezeichnete Heb-Maschine, so Peter Sommer in der Schweiz 1759 erfunden, womit man Bäume mit ihrer Wurzel, auch Stuken von abgehauenen Bäumen aus der Erde heben kann: Nebst Anweisung und Zeichnung, wie eine Saug-Pumpe von Bley zu verfertigen. Göttingen: Barmeier, Johann Albrecht, 1771. ANDREE ÖKONOMISCHE NEUIGKEITEN 1826. 8 Oekonomische Neuigkeiten und Verhandlungen.Prag: Im Verlage der Calveschen Buchhandlung, 1811-1850. DESSEN ABHANDLUNGEN, 3TER BD. S. 97. 4TER BD. S. 168 MÉM DE PARIS. 1765 ABHANDLUNGEN DER OEKONOM GESELLSCHAFTT IN PETERSBURG Abhandlungen der Freyen Ökonomischen Gesellschaft in St. Petersburg zur Aufnahme des Ackerbaues und der Hauswirthschaft in Rußland: vom Jahre...; aus d. Russ. übers. Imperatorskoe Vol'noe konomieskoe Obestvo St. Petersburg; Leipzig, 1767-1777, 1767: Mietau; Riga: Hartknoch früher: St. Petersburg; Riga; Leipzig; Auswahl ökonomischer Abhandlungen welche die Freye Ökonomische Gesellschaft in St. Petersburg in teutscher Sprache erhalten hat. Imperatorskoe volnoe konomicheskoe obshchestvo (Russia). St. Petersburg: Gedr. beym Kaiserlichen Adelichen Landkadettencorps, [1790-1793]. VERKOHLUNG DES HOLZES SCOPPULI ABHANDLUNG VOM KOHLENBRENNEN. BERN. HALLER. 1773. DESSEN KUNST DES KOHLENBRENNENS. BERN. TYPOGRAPISCHE SOCIETÄT. 1800 Scopoli, Giovanni Antonio, 1770. Abhandlung vom Kohlenbrennen. Bern Johann Anton Scopoli's Anfangsgründe der Metallurgiein welchen die hauptsächlichsten auf Hüttenwerken sowohl im kleinen, als auch in grossem Feuer auszuübende Handlungen, nach gesunden chemischen Lehrsätzen

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und mit einigen Abzeichnungen der vornehmsten Hüttengebäude vorgetragen sind Mannheim: bey Christ. Friedr. Schwan und Gottl. Christ. Götz, 1789. ABHANDLUNGEN DER ÖKONOM. GESELLSCHAFT IN BERN. 1771 – 1772 Abhandlungen und Beobachtungen durch die Ökonomische Gesellschaft zu Bern gesammelt. Ökonomische Gesellschaft Bern, Verl. d. Ökonom. Ges. 3.1762 - 14.1773, 2. OEKONOM. NACHRICHTEN DER PATRIOTÍSCHEN GESELLSCHAFT IN SCHLESIEN. BRESLAU 1774. S. 223

Oekonomische Nachrichten der Patriotischen Gesellschaft in Schlesien. Breslau, 1774. S. 223.

ABHANDLUNGEN DER SCHWED. AKAD. DER WISSENSCHAFTTEN. 20TER BD. Der Königl. Schwedischen Akademie der Wissenschaften Abhandlungen aus der Naturlehre, Haushaltungskunst und Mechanik auf die Jahre...Aus dem Schwed. übers. (von Abraham Gotthelf Kästner). Kungliga Svenska Vetenskapsakademien, Stockholm. Kästner, Abraham Gotthelf, [Übers.]; Link, Heinrich Friedrich, [Übers.] aus dem Schwed. übers. [von Abraham Gotthelf Kästner und Heinrich Friedrich Link] . Leipzig : Johann Samuel Heinsius. Hamburg. Georg Christian Grund. Erscheinungsjahr: 1749 - 1792 [Erscheinungsverlauf: 1.1739/40(1749) - 41.1779(1783); [N.S.] 1.1780(1784) - 12.1790(1792)] NEUE ABHANDLUNGEN DERSELBEN. 1TER BD. S. 25

CRAMER ANLETUNG ZUM FORSTWESEN. BRAUNSCHWEIG, SCHULBCHHANDL. 1766, 1798 Johann Andreas Cramers Anleitung zum Forst-Wesen nebst einer ausführl. Beschreibung von Verkohlung des Holzes, Nutzung der Torfbrüche; Mit vielen Kupfern. Neue Aufl. Braunschweig: Schulbuchhandlg. 1798. BORNEMANN VERSUCH EINER SYSTEMATRISCHEN ANLEITUNG ZUM KOHLEN. GÖTTINGEN. 1776 Bornemann, Christian Ernst, 1776: Versuch einer systematischen Abhandlung von den Kohlen. Mit einem Kupfer. Göttingen.

STAHL. FORSTMAGAZIN 4TER BD. Allgemeines oeconomisches Forst-Magazin ges. von e. Ges..., hrsg. unter d. Aufsicht Johann Friedrich Stahls: in welchem allerhand nüzliche Beobachtungen, Vorschläge und Versuche über die Wirthschaftliche, Policey – und Cameral-Gegenstände des sämtlichen Wald-Forst- und Holzwesens enthalten sind. Mezler; Leipzig, 1763-1769. FORST, FISCH- UND JAGDLEXICON. 2TER BD. 596 Onomatologia Forestalis-Piscatorio-Venatoria oder vollständiges Forst-, Fisch- und Jagd-Lexicon: in welchem alle bey dem Forst-, Fisch- und Jagdwesen vorkommende Kunstwörter erkläret, der Verhalt und Kenntniß der Holzungen, sammt der Art sie im besten Stande zu erhalten angewiesen; die Eigenschaften, Gebrauch und Fortpflanzung der verschiedenen Holzarten mitgetheilet werden; Nach alphabetischer Ordnung zu allgemeinem Gebrauch deutlich und ausführlich abgehandelt [T. 1 - 3 von Christoph Otto, T. 4 von J. F. Stahl]. KRÜNITZ ENCYKLOPEDIE. 43TER BD. ART. KOHLE MOSERS FORSTARCHIV. 2TER. 7TER BD. Forst Archiv zur Erweiterung der Forst- und Jagd-Wissenschaft und der Forst- und Jagd-Literatur hrsg. von Wilhelm Gottfried von Moser. - Ulm: Stettin 1.1788 - 17.1796. GATTERER TECHNOLOG. MAGAZIN. HEIDELBERG 1794 Gatterer, Christoph Wilhelm Jacob, 1790 1794: Technologisches Magazin Heidelberg. SCHULTES AUSFLÜGE NACH DEN SCHNEEBERGEN IN UNTERÖSTERREICH. WIEN 1802 Schultes Joseph, August. 1802: Ausflüge nach dem Schneeberge in Unterösterreich. Taschenbuch auf Reisen nach demselben. Wien, Degen. WERNECK GEMEINNÜTZIGE ENTDECKUNGEN. KARLSRUHE. MACKFLOTT. 1TER BD.

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Werneck, Ludwig Friedrich Franz von 1811: Gemeinnützige Entdeckungen und Beobachtungen im Gebiete der praktischen Forstwissenschaft für Forstmänner, Kammeralisten, Hüttenvorsteher, Professionisten, und Holzhändler. Karlsruhe. Werneck Ludwig F. Von. 1791: Anleitung zur gemeinnüzigen Kenntniß der Holzpflanzen...Frankfurt; Werneck, Ludwig Friedrich Franz von 1808: Physikalisch-chemische Abhandlungen über die spezifischen Gewichte der vorzüglichsten deutschen Holzarten und ihre verschiedwene Brennkraft als Holz und Kohlen, sowohl in geflößten als ungeflößten Zustande: ein Beitrag zur Physik und höhern Forstwissenschaft. Gießen (u. a): Heyer. Werneck, Ludwig Fredrich, Franz. 1777: Vollständiger Forstcalender, worinnen alle einem Förster obliegende Verrichtungen von Monat zu Monat Angezeigt werden, nach der angenommenen Ordnung hrn. Johann Gottlieb Bechmanns...mit gründlich unterrichtenden Anmerkungen und Belehrung zu aüsfuhrlicher Beschreibung und Taxirung des Forstes, Schätzung des Nutzholzes, Abfuhre des Holzes und Anlegung der Holzwege, nebst genauen und deutlichen Tabellen und Rissen, auch ausführlichern Ausrechnungen, dann einer anatomischen Zergliederung des Baumes, und andern zur Forstwissenschaft unentbehrlichen Stücken vermehrt, von L.F.F. Baron von Werneck. Breslau: J.F. Korn dem ältern. USSLAR FORSTWIRTSCHAFTL. BEMERCKUNG. BRAUSCHWEIG 1792 SPÄTH PRAKTISCHE ABHANDLUNG VOM KOHLEN DES HOLZES. NÜRNBERG, RASPE. 1800 Späth, Johann Leonhard (1805) Handbuch der Forstwissenschaft worinnen der praktische Betrieb der Waldungen, ihre möglichste Erhaltung, Verbesserung und cammeralistische Benutzung abgehandelt wird. Nürnberg: Raspe.

BESCHREIBUNG DER ITALIENISCHER KOHLUNGSMETODE. WIEN, DEGEN. 1813 Beschreibung der italienischen Kohlungs-Methode: Auf allerhöchsten Befehl hrsg. Österreich Inner-Oesterreichisches Oberkammergrafenamt. Wien: K.K.Hof-. und Staats-Druckerey, 1812. AF UHR VERKOHLUNG DES HOLZES (IN LIEGENDEN MEILERN) ÜBERSETZT VON BLUMHOF. GIESSEN 1820 Uhr, Carl David af; Blumhof, Johann Georg Ludolph, 1820: Anleitung zur vortheilhaften Verkohlung des Holzes in stehenden und liegenden Meilern. Gießen; Heyer. HANDBUCH FÜR FÖRSTER VOM GRAFEN V. M. BERLIN, 1895. SPÄRHEN Maltzan, J. C. 1805: Handbuch für Förster als Inbegriff der zur Forst- und Holz-Wirthschaft erforderlichen Kenntnisse, aus den Schriften allgemein geschätzter und erfahrner Männer geschöpft. Berlin: Späthen. FORSTWISSENSCHAFTLICHE ABHANDLUNG, MARBURG. KRIEGER. 1806. 1TES HEFT KRÜNITZ ENCYKLOPÖDE. 78TER BD, 1TES HEFT Krünitz Encyklopöde . 78ter Bd. 1tes Heft. HARTIG FORST UND JAGDARCHIV, 1818.1TES HEFT Hartig, Georg Ludwig 1816- 1820. Forst- und Jagd-Archiv von und für Preußen. Forst- und Jagd-Archiv für Preußen . Leipzig; Kummer. HÖSS NATURLEHRE Höss, Franz 1826: Anfangsgründe der Naturlehre in ihrer Anwendung auf forstliche und forst-technologische Gegenstände: für angehende Forstmänner, Ökonomen und Cameralisten. Wien: Schaumburg BESTANDTHEILE DER KOHLE UND IHRE EIGENSCHAFTEN PARKERS CHEM. KATECHISMUS. 302, 630 Parkes Samuel, 1818: Chemischer Katechismus: mit Noten, Erläuterungen und Anleitung zu Versuchen; Nach der siebenten Englischen Ausgabe in's Teutsche übersetzt / von Samuel Parkes Weimar: im Verl. des Großh. Sächs. pr. Landes-Industrie-Comptoirs. CHAPTAL AGRICULTURCHEMIE. II. 41

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Chaptal Jean, Antoine 1824: Die Agriculturchemie.Mit Zusätzen und Anmerkungenutor: übersetzt durch H. F. Eisenbach und mit einem Anhange verschen von G. Schübler. Stuttgart. DAVY ELEMENTE DER AGRKULTURCHEMIE. 116. (GIEBT AUCH ÜBER DIE MENGE DER KOHLE AUSKUNFT.) Davy, Humphry. 1814: Elemente der Agrikultur-Chemie : in einer Reihe von Vorlesungen gehalten vor der Gesellschaft zur Beförderung des Ackerbaues; Mit einem Kupfer von Sir Humphry Davy. Aus dem Englischen übersetzt von Friedrich Wolff, Professor am Joachimsthalschen Gymnasium zu Berlin, und mit Anmerkungen und einer Vorrede begleitet von dem Königlich Preußischen Staatsrath Albrecht Thär M. D. Berlin...in der Nicolaischen Buchhandlung. HERMBSTÄDT AGRICULTURCHEMIE. 4TE ABTHEIL Hermbstädt, Sigismund Friedrich Archiv der Agriculturchemie für denkende Landwirthe: oder Sammlung der wichtigsten Entdeckungen, Erfahrungen und Beobachtungen aus dem Reiche der Physik und Chemie für rationelle Landwirthe, Güterbesitzer, Forstmänner und Freunde der ökonomischen Gewerbe hrsg. von Sigism. Friedr. Hermbstädt. Berlin: Realschulbuchh. 1817 – 1818. TORF. VERKOHLUNG

ZANTHIER ABHANDLUNG UEBER DAS THEORET. UND PRAKT. FORSTWESEN VON HENNERT. BERLIN. 1799. SANDER; UND UNTERRICHT VOM FORSTWESEN, ULM 1799, BEI STETTIN Zanthier Abhandlungen über das theoretische und praktische Forstwesen von Hennert, Berlin 1799. Sander: und Unterricht vom Torfwesen. Ulm 1797. Bei Stettin. Sammlungen vermischter Abhandlungen, das theoretische und practische Forstwesen betreffend.Zanthier, Hans Dietrich von Berlin; Wever; 1778; S. 135; Kt. Hans Dieterich von Zanthier's...Unterricht vom Torfwesen, besonders von der durch denselben am Harze eingeführten Verkohlung desselben/Zanthier, Hans Dietrich von 1797. Ulm bei Stettin. Zanthier, Hans Dietrich von 1799; Hennert, Carl Wilhelm. Abhandlungen über das theoretische und praktische Forstwesen; 2: Mit zwei Kupfertafeln (1799) Zanthier, Hans Dietrich von 1717-1778; Hennert, Carl Wilhelm 1738-1800 Berlin: Wever. FRENZEL FORSTCHEMIE Frenzel, Franz Christof Chemie für Forstmänner, Oekonomen und Botaniker von Franz Christoph Frenzel ; Nebst einer Vorr. v. (Wilhelm August) Lampadius. Lampadius, Wilhelm August *1772-1842*. EISELEN, KENNTNISS DES TORFWESENS. BERLIN. 1802 Eiselen, Johann Christoph Berlin 1802 Kenntniss des Torfwesens. Handbuch oder ausführliche theoretisch-praktische Anleitung zur näheren Kenntniss des Torfwesens und Vorbereitung der Torfmoore, Behuf der nutzbarsten Anlage und Betrieb einzelner Torfgräbereyen, deren praktischen Betrieb selbst, sowohl in Rücksicht auf Holzschonung, als dem daraus entstehenden besondern und allgemeinen Nutzen, auch Wiederkultur der ausgestochenen Gründe&. Berlin; W. Viewig; 1802. Eiselen, Johann Christoph 1793: Etwas über das Verkohlen des Torfs: Siehe, J. D.; Siede, Johann Christian [H. Berlin; Schön Neue Abhandlung der Schwed. Akademie der Wissenschaften. 2ter Bd. S. 279. NEUE ABHANDLUNG DER SCHWED. AKADEMIE DER WISSENSCHAFTEN. 2TER BD. S. 279 Der Königl. Schwedischen Akademie der Wissenschaften Abhandlungen aus der Naturlehre, Haushaltungskunst und Mechanik auf die Jahr...Aus dem Schwed. übers. (von Abraham Gotthelf Kästner). Kungliga Svenska Vetenskapsakademien, Stockholm. Kästner, Abraham Gotthelf, [Übers.]; Link, Heinrich Friedrich, [Übers.] aus dem Schwed. übers. [von Abraham Gotthelf Kästner und Heinrich Friedrich Link]. Leipzig: Johann Samuel Heinsius Hamburg: Georg Christian Grund. Erscheinungsjahr: 1749 - 1792 [Erscheinungsverlauf: 1.1739/40 (1749) - 41.1779 (1783); [N. S.] 1.1780 (1784) - 12.1790(1792)] SIEDE ETWAS ÜBER VERKOHLUNG DES HOLZES. BERLIN SCHOENE 1793 Siehe, J. D.; Siede, Johann Christian 1793: Etwas über das Verkohlen des Torfs: Berlin; Schöne; 1793; XII, S. 44.

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V.BOSE DAS GANZE DER TORFWISSENSCHAFT LEIPZIG. 1802 Bose, Carl, Adam, Heinrich von 1802: Das Ganze der Torfwissenschaft theoretisch und praktisch abgehandelt. Leipzig; Fleischer; 1802; XX, S. 308. FORST UND JAGDZEITUNG. 1828. S. 605 Allgemeine Forst- und Jagdzeitung- Bad Orb: Sauerländer 1.1825 - [7.]1831; N.F. 1. MOSERS FORSTARCHIV. 21TER BD. S. 234 Forst Archiv zur Erweiterung der Forst- und Jagd-Wissenschaft und der Forst- und Jagd-Literatur/hrsg. von Wilhelm Gottfried von Moser. - Ulm: Stettin 1.1788 - 17.1796. SÄGEBLÖCKE, SÄGEMÜHLEN, (BAU, ADMINISTRATION VERPACHTUNG SO WIE BRETTSCHNEIDEN ÜBERHAUPT) BENCKENDORFF OECONOMIA FORENSIS. VII. BD. Oeconomia forensis oder kurzer Inbegriff derjenigen landwirthschaftlichen Wahrheiten, welche allen sowohl hohen als niedrigen Gerichts-Personen zu wissen nöthig; Benekendorff, Karl Friedrich von 1713-1788/1780. Mehrb. Werk Berlin; auli; erschienen: 1 (1775) - 8 (1784). BECKMANN PHYS. ÖKONOM. BIBLIOTHEK XIII, 149 Physikalisch-ökonomische bibliothek, worinn von den neuesten büchern, welche die naturgeschichte, naturlehre, und die land- und stadtwirthschaft betreffen, zuverlässige und...Beckmann, Johann, 1739-1811/1770. TRAIT DE L'ART DU CHARPENTIER PAR HASSENFRATZ. PARIS 1804 Traité de l'art du Charpentier: avec figures. 1/Hassenfratz, Jean H. - Paris: Didot (1804). BAYERS THEATRUM MACHINARUM MOLINARIUM. DRESDEN 1788 Theatrum Machinarum Molarium, Oder Schau-Platz der Mühlen-Bau-Kunst. Welcher allerhand Sorten von solchen Maschinen, die man Mühlen nennet, so wohl historisch als practisch, nebst ihren Grund- und Auf-Rissen vorstellet und zwar wird in selbigen gehandelt: Von Untersuchung des Gefälles, der Quantität des Wassers, so ein Fluß in gewisser Zeit schüttet, Wassertheilungen und Wägen, Wehr- und andern nöthigen Wasser-Bau, von Grund-Werck und dem Unterschied, so zwischen Staber- Strauber- und Panster-Zeug ist, von Oberschlächtigen und Schiff-Mühlen, sammt ihren Vorgelegen und sämmtlich gangbaren Zeuge, Räderwerck und Mühl-Gerüste; Ingleichen auch von Wind- Hand- Roß- und Feld-Mühlen, über dem von allerhand improprie sogenannten Mühlen, als: Oehl- Graupen- Hierse, Gewürtz- Loh- und Pulver-Mühlen, ferner von Papier- Walck- Glaß- und Eisen- Schleiff- Polier- Bohr- Säge- Steinschneide- Dresch- und Heckerlings-Mühlen, u.a.m. auch was insonderheit mit jeglicher besonders vor Vortheil geschaffet werden kan; Welchem am Ende beygefüget Ein Real-Register aller und jeder bey gesagten Maschinen vorkommender Terminorum technicorum oder Kunst-Wörter/Beyer, Johann Matthia/1767. STAHLS FORSTMAGAZIN. 9TER BD. Allgemeines oeconomisches Forst-Magazin ges. von e. Ges..., hrsg. unter d. Aufsicht Johann Friedrich Stahls: in welchem allerhand nützliche Beobachtungen, Vorschläge und Versuche über die Wirthschaftliche, Policey- und Cameral-Gegenstände des sämtlichen Wald-Forst- und Holzwesens enthalten sind. Mezler; Leipzig, 1763-1769. KRÜNITZ ENCYKLOPEDIE. 6TER, 130TER BD. Ökonomisch-technologische Encyklopädie oder allgemeines System der Stats-, Stadt-, Haus- und Land-Wirthschaft und der Kunst-Geschichte: in alphabetischer Ordnung von D. Johann Georg Krünitz Band 6. Berlin 1784. Ökonomisch-technologische Encyklopädie oder allgemeines System der Stats-, Stadt-, Haus- und Land-Wirthschaft und der Kunst-Geschichte: in alphabetischer Ordnung von D. Johann Georg Krünitz Band: 130. Welcher die Artikel Säen bis Sälband enthält: nebst 9 Kupfertafeln auf 4 Bogen Krünitz, Johann Georg; Floerke, Friedrich Jakob; Flörke, Heinrich Gustav; Korth, Johann Wilhelm David; Hoffmann, Carl Otto; Koßarski, Ludwig Berlin: Pauli, 1822. GLEIDITSCH EINLEITUNG IN DIE FORSTWISSENSCHAFT. 2TER BD. S. 1249 Systematische Einleitung in die neuere aus ihren eigenthümlichen physikalischen-ökonomischen Gründen hergeleitete Forstwissenschaft, Tom 2 Berlin. Johann Gottlieb Gleiditsch 1775.

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MOSERS GRUNDSÄTZE DER FORSTÖKONOMIE Grundsätze der Forstökonomie Wilhelm Gottfrid Moser: Frankfurt [a.M.]: Heinrich Ludwig Brönner, 1757. 2 Bd. STURMS VOLLSTÄNDIGE MÜHLENBAUKUNST. FOL. AUGSBURG Vollständige Mühlen Baukunst darinnen werden I. alle Grundreguln so zu der Praxi nöthig die doch gar wenigen recht bekant sind, treülich angewiesen, II. die Vortheile die man bey Anlegung der Wasserräder alle Sorten von Machinen zutreiben in acht nehmen muss auf den höchsten Grad der Vollkommenheit gebracht, III. was insonderheit an Korn- Graupen- Papier-...und Dreschmühlen zuverbessern aufrichtig entdecket/Sturm, Leonhard Christoph/1718. HALBERSTÄDTER UND MAGDEBURGER FORSTORDNUNG VON 1743 Die neue Salz-, Mast- und Jagdordnung für das Herzogtum Magdeburg und die Grafschaft Mansfeld (Die Forstordnung vom 3. Oktober 1743 ist auch für das Fürstentum Halberstadt bestimmt.)/1743 - 1807, Landeshauptarchiv Sachsen-Anhalt, A 9 (Benutzungsort: Magdeburg) Kriegs- und Domänenkammer zu Magdeburg. Generalia. II. Finanzverwaltung, III. Miszellen SIEMSEN MAGAZIN FÜR NATURKUNDE UND OEKNOMIE MEKLENBURG SCHWERIN 1791. S. 168 Siemssen, Adolph Christian, 1791-1795. Magazin für die Naturkunde und Oekonomie Meklenburgs Schwerin; Leipzig; Bärensprung u. Gräff. MAYER FORSTDIRECTIONSLEHRE, § 269 Meyer, Johann Christian Friedrich [1777-1854] Forstdirectionslehre nach den Grundsätzen der Regierungspolitik und Forstwissenschaft/von Johann Christian Friedrich Meyer Würzburg: Stahel, 1820. PFEIL ANLEITUNG ZUR BEHANDLUNG DER FORSTEN. ZÜLLICHAU, DARNMANN Pfeil, Wilhelm. Vollständige Anleitung zur Behandlung, Benutzung und Schätzung der Forsten: ein Handbuch für Forstbediente, Gutsbesitzer/entworfen von W. Pfeil Züllichau; Freistadt: Darnmann. TRIEST GRUNDSÄTZE Triest August Ferdinand 1809- 1815: Grundsätze zur Anfertigung richtiger Anschläge welche die Land-Baukunst in sich begreift Berlin: im Kunst- und Industrie-Comptoir, 1809-1815. DESSEN HANDBUCH ZUR BERECHNUNG USW. Triest, August E. 1828: Handbuch zur Berechnung der Baukosten für sämmtliche Gegenstände der Stadt- und Landbaukunst. Enthaltend die Grundsätze über die Ausmittelung des Raums zu den Gebäuden, Anweisung zu Bau-Taxen, Bau-Verordnungen, Berlin. HENSOLDT DIE KUNST BLÖCKE ZU BOHLEN UND DIELEN ZU SCHNEIDEN. HILDBURGHAUSEN. KESSELRING Hensoldt, Heinrich, Christoph. 1840: Vollständiges Taschenbuch über alle Sorten Schneidemühl-Waaren enthält: 3515 Stück Breter und Bolen (Dielen) von 1/2 bis 4 Zollen Dicke...Hensoldt, Heinrich, Christoph. 1840: Vollständiges Taschenbuch über alle Sorten Schneidemühl-Waaren ein...Hilfsbuch für Bauunternehmer...Coburg [u. a.]; Riemann Hensoldt, Heinrich, Christoph. 1838: Tafeln über den Kubikinhalt stehender, nämlich noch nicht abgeschlagener Stämme und walzenförmiger Blockstücke: zum bequemen Gebrauch für alle Forstmänner. Riemann –Koburg. STAHL FORSTMAGAZIN IX. 1. Allgemeines oekonomisches Forst- Magazin: in welchem allerhand nuezliche Beobachtungen, Vorschläge und Versuche ueber die wirthschaftliche Policey- und Cameral-Gegenstaende des saemtlichen Wald-, Forst- und Holzwesens enthalten sind / gesammelt von e. Gesellschaft deren ordentliches Geschaefte ist, Waldungen zu gewinnen, zu benutzen und zu erhalten, hrsg. unter d. Aufsicht Johann Friedrich Stahls. Frankfurt und Leipzig: Mezler. 1763-1769.

SCHIFFBAUHOLZ. (ARBEITEN UND VERKAUF) S. 168

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MAYERS ZEITSCHRIFT F. BAIERN. 113; 5TES, 6TES, 8TES, 9TES HEFT Zeitschrift für Baiern und die angränzenden Länder. 1816- 117. München. JÄGERSCHMIDT HOLZTRANSPORT UND FLOSSWESEN Jägerschmid, Karl F. V , 1827: Handbuch für Holztransport- und Floßwesen : zum Gebrauche für Forstmänner und Holzhändler, und für solche, die es werden wollen. Teil: 1. Karlsruhe : Müller, 1827

MOSERS FORSTARCHIV. VERSCH, BDE. Forst-Archiv zur Erweiterung der Forst- und Jagd-Wissenschaft und der Forst- und Jagd-Literatur / hrsg. von Wilhelm Gottfried von Moser. - Ulm : Stettin 1.1788 - 17.1796. KÖNIG DIE FLOSSWIRTSCHAFT Friedrich Wilhelm,, Preußen, König, 1724: Verordnung, daß vor und an den Brücken über der Spree Bey den Residentzien Kein Floß-Holtz Noch groß Schiffs-Gefäß gelegt werden soll: De dato Berlin, den 9ten Maji 1724. Berlin: Gotthard Schlechtiger, 1724.

SPONECK FORSTLICHE ANSICHTEN Der Schwarzwald: Ein Handbuch für Forstmänner, denen es um gründliche und praktische Kenntnisse in der Waldbehandlung der Gebirgsforste zu thun ist: Mit zweckmässigen Notizen für Kameralisten, Technologen…sowie als Wegweiser für Reisende/ Sponeck, Carl Friedrich. Über den Schwarzwaldgeographische, topographische, statistische, geognostische und naturhistorische Notizen sowie Angaben über die Holzarten im Schwarzwald, Beschreibung d. Wildstandes, d. Viehweiden, Insekten, Flössereien und einige Reisebeschreibungen aus dem Jahre 1817 von Carl Friedrich von Sponeck. Sponeck, C. F., Graf von 1807: Forstwissenschaftliche und botanische Abhandlungen und Bemerkungen. Bdchn. i. Heidelberg.

JÄGERSCHMIDT MURGTHAL Jägerschmidt E. A.1798: Erste Gründe der Forstwissenschaft . Basel. FORST UND JAGDZEITUNG 1826. NR. 5 .80 Allegemeine Forst – und Jagdzeitung. Bad Orb.: Sauerländer.

JÄGERSCHMIDT HOLZTRANSPORT; 1TER, 2TER BD. Jägerschmid, Carl Friedrich Victor 1827: Han dbuch für Holztransport- und Floßwesen. Enthaltend die Fällung, Zurichtung und den Transport des Holzes zu Land. Karlsruhe ; 1827; XX, S. 391. SCHIFFBAUHOLZ ÜBERHAUPT (Literatur sehe Krünitz Encyklopedie, 124ter, 143ter Bd.); †Dühamel du Monceau von Fällung der Wälder Duhamel du Monceau, Henri Louis; Oelhafen von Schöllenbach, Carl Christoph; Winterschmidt, Adam Wolfgang 1766 Von Fällung der Wälder und gehöriger Anwendung des gefällten Holzes Oder Wie mit dem Schlag-Holz, dann halb- und ganz ausgewachsenem Ober-Holz, umzugehen, und alles benannte Holz richtig zu schätzen und anzuschlagen ist: Nebst einer Beschreibung der Handwerker, die ihre Arbeit in den Wäldern verfertigen, als ein zur vollständigen Abhandlung von dem Forst-Wesen gehöriger Theil; 1 Nürnberg, Winterschmidt. Duhamel du Monceau, Henri Louis; Oelhafen von Schöllenbach, Carl Christop; Winterschmidt, Adam Wolfgang 1767: Von Fällung der Wälder und gehöriger Anwendung des gefällten Holzes Oder Wie mit dem Schlag-Holz, dann halb- und ganz ausgewachsenem Ober-Holz, umzugehen, und alles benannte Holz richtig zu schäzen und anzuschlagen ist: Nebst einer Beschreibung der Handwerker, die ihre Arbeit in den Wäldern verfertigen, als ein zur vollständigen Abhandlung von dem Forst-Wesen gehöriger Theil; 2 Nürnberg, Winterschmidt. Henri Louis Duhamel DuMonceau. Ubers. und mit Anm. verm. von C. G. D. Müller. 1791:Anfangsgründe der Schiffbaukunst oder praktische Abhandlung über den Schiffbau: Berlin: Pauli, Schauplatz der Künste und Handwerke, oder vollständige Beschreibung derselben/verfertiget oder gebilliget von denen Herren der Academie der Wissenschaften zu Paris. Ubersetzt ins Teutsche und mit Anmerkungen versehen von Johann Heinrich Gottlob von Justi; Bd. 19. † JESTER ANLETUNG ZUR KENNTNISS DES NUTZHOLZES Jester, Friedrich Ernst 1816: Anleitung zurKentnß und zweckmäßigen Zugutemachung der Nutzhölzer : jungen angehenden Forstmännern gewidmet; 3. Bd.: Zugutemachung der Nutzhölzer und zwar vom Zugutemachen der Nutzhölzer im Einzelnen Königsberg in Preußen: Unzer.

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BURGSDORF FORSTHANDBUCH Burgsdorf, Friedrich August Ludwig 1795: Forsthandbuch. Allgemeiner theoretisch-praktischer Lehrbegriff sämtlicher Försterwissenschaften ; Nebst vielen Tabellen und einer illumin. Forstkarte... abgefaßt von F. A. L. von Burgsdorf, Königl. Preuß. Geheimen-Rath, demnächst Oberforstmeister der Churmark Brandenburg…Dritte verbesserte Auflage .Frankfurt; Leipzig. Walther, Friedrich Ludwig Giessen: Heyer, 1809. KRAUSE KOMPENDIUM DER NIEDERN FORSTWISSENSCHAFT. S. 245 Krause Georg, Friedrich 1806: Compendium der niedern Forstwissenschaften : mit mehreren Tabellen/abgefaßt von George Friedrich Krause. Berlin. Frölich. KUBIKTABELLE FÜR DEN HOLZHANDEL. DANZIG, ANHUTH, 1825 MASTENMAASSE ETC.). TASCHENBUCH FÜR ANGEHENDE FORSTMÄNNER Taschenbuch für angehende Forstmänner : zur Anwendung in der Forst bei der Auswahl der Bau- und Baumhölzer zu Schiffsbauten, zu Staab-, Nutz- und Schirrhölzern. Potsdam, Horvath. 1821. SIERSTORPF MONOGRAPHIE DER EICHE Sierstorpff, Kaspar Heinrich, von 1796: Über die forstmäßige Erziehung, Erhaltung und Benutzung der vorzüglichsten inländischen Holzarten/Von C. H. von Sierstorpff; Theil 1 Welcher die Forst-Botanik, die Naturkunde der Bäume überhaupt und die Beschreibung der Eiche enthält: Mit ill. Kupfern. Hannover: Hahn.

BECKER ÜBER KULTUR, KÜNSTLICHE BILDUNG UND FÄLLUNG DES SCHIFFBAUHOLZES. GEKRÖNTE PREISSCHRIFT. LEIPZIG. FLEISCHER. 1804. Becker, Hermann Friedrich, 1804: Über Cultur, künstliche Bildung und Fällung des Schiffsbauholzes: Preisschrift / Hermann Friedrich Becker. Leipzig.

HARTIG FORST UND JAGDARCHIV. 1818. 2TES HEFT Hartig, Georg Ludwig 1816- 1820. Forst- und Jagd-Archiv von und für Preußen. Forst- und Jagd-Archiv für Preußen. Leipzig; Kummer. KRÜNITZ ENYKLOPÖDIE 142, 143 BD, DIESE THEILE ENTHALTEN EINE VOLLSTÄNDIGE ANLEITUNG ZUR SCHIFFSBAUKUNST UND ALLES DESSEN, WAS HINSICHTS DER BESCHAFFENHEIT DES HOLZES ZU WSSEN NÖTHIG IST.) PFEIL ANLEITUNG ZUR BEHANDLUNG DER FORSTEN. 2BD. ZÜLLICHAU. DARNMANN.(VERKAUF VON SCHIFFBAUHOLZ) Pfeil, Wilhelm. Vollständige Anleitung zur Behandlung, Benutzung und Schätzung der Forsten : ein Handbuch für Forstbediente, Gutsbesitzer/entworfen von W. Pfeil Züllichau; Freistadt: Darnmann. RÖHREN SCHEYERS WASSERBAUKUNST Johann Georg Scheyers, hochfürstl. Hohenlohischen Ingenieur-Hauptmanns und Bau-Direktors praktisch-ökonomische Wasserbaukunst : zum Unterricht für Beamte, Förster, Landwirthe. Müller und jeden Landmann, besonders für die welche an Flüssen und Strömen wohnen. Mit einer Vorrede vom Herrn Kammerrath Suckow. Neue verbesserte Ausg. Leipzig; Fleischer; 1794. ROMMERTS WASSERBAUKUNST S. 50. Diese Forst- und Jagdwissenschaft nach allen ihren Theilen: für angehende und ausübende Forstmänner und Jäger; 13. Theil, 2. Bd.: Handbuch der Land- und Wasserbaukunst - Die Wasserbaukunst: für angehende und ausübende Forstmänner, Kameralisten und Oekonomen (1828) Rommerdt, Johann Christian Carl; Bechstein, Johann Matthäus 1757-1822; Laurop, Christian Peter 1772-1858. SCHINDELN PFEIL ANLEITUNG ZUR BEHANDLUNG DER FORSTEN ETC. 2TER BD. Pfeil , Wilhelm. Vollständige Anleitung zur Behandlung, Benutzung und Schätzung der Forsten: ein Handbuch für Forstbediente, Gutsbesitzer/entworfen von W. Pfeil Züllichau; Freistadt: Darnmann.

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ANDREE ÖKONOM. NEUIGKETEN. 1823. NR. 13. Oekonomische Neuigkeiten und Verhandlungen.Prag: Im Verlage der Calveschen Buchhandlung, 1811-1850 Dessen Abhandlungen, 3ter Bd. S. 97. 4ter Bd. S. 168.

FORST UND JAGDZEITUNG, 1825. NR. 5. 1826, 19, 28 Allgemeine Forst- und Jagdzeitung- Bad Orb : Sauerländer 1.1825 - [7.]1831; N.F. 1.

LIEBIGS AUFMERKSAMER FORSTMANN ABGABEN VON FREIEM BAUHOLZE AN BERECHTIGTE. MOSERS FORSTARCHIV. 11TER BD. S. 157 Forst-Archiv zur Erweiterung der Forst- und Jagd-Wissenschaft und der Forst- und Jagd-Literatur / hrsg. von Wilhelm Gottfried von Moser. - Ulm : Stettin 1.1788 - 17.1796. MYLIUS GESESSSAMMLUNG VI. 1093. VI. 1208 Mylius, Christian Otto 1737: Novum Corpus constitutionum Prussico-Brandenburgensium praecipue Marchicarum oder Neue Sammlung Königl. Preuss. und Churfürstl. Brandenburgischer, sonderlich in der Chur- und Mark-Brandenburg publizirten und ergangenen Verordnungen, Edicten, Mandaten, Rescripten etc.; Von Polizei-, Hochzeit-, Kindtaufen-, Begräbniss- und Trauer-, Kleider- auch Feuer-, Gassen und anderen zur Policey gehörigen Ordnungen, derer Städte Anbau-, Manufacturen-, Commercien-, Woll- und Handwercks-Sachen, Dorff- und Acker-, Bauer-, Schäffer-, Hirten-, Gesinde-Ordnungen und andere das Land-Wesen und Acker-Bau betreffenden Materien, item von Medicinal-Ordnung, Chirurgis, Apotheckern, Pest-Anstalten, Vieh-Sterben, Scharffrichtern, Abdeckern, Schweineschneidern, Landstreichern, Zigeunern, Juden, Wirths-Häusern und dergleichen (1737)Berlin : Debits-Kontoir. PFEIL ANLEITUNG ZUR ABLÖSUNG DER WALDSERVITUTEN. BERL. 1828 Pfeil, Wilhelm 1626: Anleitung zur Ablösung der Waldservitute mit besonderer Rücksicht auf die preußische Gesetzgebung: Berlin; 1828.

HERRMANNS VERSUCH ÜBER DIE HOLZGERECHTIGKEITEN. LEIPZIG, GÖTHE. 1797 Hermann, Johann Heinrich Gottlieb 1797: Ueber Holzgerechtigkeiten: Versuch einer Erläuterung der Stelle Th. I. Tit. XXII. §. 197-234 des allgemeinen Gesetzbuchs für die Preußischen Staaten. Leipzig : Göthe. UEBER NUTZ UND BRENNHOLZMAGAZINE HARTIG JOURNAL.1806. 2TES HEFT, 1808. 3TES HEFT Hartig ,Georg Ludwig 1806 – 1808: Journal für das Forst-, Jagd- und Fischereywesen zur nützlichen und angenehmen Unterhaltung. Stuttgart; Löflund. MEYERS ZEITSCHRIFT FÜR BAIERN. 3TER BD. 4TES HEFT Zeitschrift für Baiern und die angränzenden Länder. 1816- 117. München.

DESSEN FORSTDIRECTIONSLEHRE. S. 478 Mayer, J.C.F., Formulare zu d. Forstinstruktionen als dritter Theil d. Forstdirektionslehre. Würzburg, Stahel, 1810. LAUROP JAHRBÜCHER. 1824. 1TES HEFT Jahrbücher der gesammten Forst- und Jagdwissenschaft und ihrer Literatur (1823). Laurop, Christian Peter. Heidelberg; Leipzig: Groos. GR. SPONECK ÜBER HOLZMAGAZINE- HEIDELBERG 1816 Ueber die Anlegung, Einrichtung und den Nutzen der Holzgärten und Holzmagazine in forstlicher und staatswirthschaftlicher Hinsicht, von C. F. Graf von Sponeck. Heidelberg : Groos, 1816. SYLVAN. 1815 Sylvan, ein Jahrbuch für Forstmänner, Jäger und Jagdfreunde auf das Jahr von Christian Peter Laurop. Heidelberg: Leipzig .Groos, 1813-1829.

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SEUTTER ÜBER DIE VERWALTUNG DER STAATSDOMAINEN. ULM 1825. S. 25 Seutter, Johann Georg – von 1825: Ueber die Verwaltung der Staats-Domänen, so wie der Domänial-Gefälle und Rechte. Ulm. WEDEKIND NEUE JAHRBÜCHER. 4TES HEFT Wedekind, Georg Wilhelm, Freiherr von. Neue Jahrbücher der Forstkunde. Mainz: Florian Kupferberg. JÄGERSCHMIDT HOLZTRANSPORT UND FLOSSWESEN. 2TER BD. Jägerschmid, Karl F. V. 1827: Handbuch für Holztransport- und Floßwesen: zum Gebrauche für Forstmänner und Holzhändler, und für solche, die es werden wollen. Teil: 1. Karlsruhe : Müller, 1827. PFEIL GRUNDSÄTZE DER FORSTWIRTSCHAFT. 2TER BD. Grundsätze der Forstwirtschaft in Bezug auf die Nationalökonomie und die Staatsfinanzwissenschaft von W. Pfeil. Züllichau und Freistadt: Darnmann, 1822-1824. HARZSCHARREN, S. PECH-UND KIENRUSSBEREITUNG KRUENITZ ENCYKLOP 108TER BD. ART. PECH; SIERSTORPF DIE FICHTE Sierstorpff, Caspar Heinrich von 1813: [Über die forstmäßige Erziehung, Erhaltung und Benutzung der vorzüglichsten inländischen Holzarten: Nebst einigen Beiträgen, welche das Forstwesen überhaupt betreffen / Von C. H. von Sierstorpff; Theil 2] Welcher die Beschreibung der Fichte enthält. Hannover: Hahn HARTIGS JOURNAL. 1807. 2TES HEFT Hartig, Georg Ludwig 1806 – 1808: Journal für das Forst-, Jagd- und Fischereywesen zur nützlichen und angenehmen Unterhaltung. Stuttgart; Löflund. MAYERS ZEITSCHRIFT FÜR BAIERN Zeitschrift für Baiern und die angränzenden Länder. 1816- 117. München. MOSERS FORSTARCHIV. 26TER, 27TER, 28TER BD. Forst-Archiv zur Erweiterung der Forst- und Jagd-Wissenschaft und der Forst- und Jagd-Literatur / hrsg. von Wilhelm Gottfried von Moser. - Ulm : Stettin 1.1788 - 17.1796

†MAYER FORSTDIRECTIONSLEHRE. Meyer, Johann Christian Friedrich [1777-1854] Forstdirectionslehre nach den Grundsätzen der Regierungepolitik und Forstwissenschaft von Johann Christian Friedrich Meyer Würzburg: Stahel, 1820. REITTER JOURNAL FÜR DAS FORST- UND JAGDWESEN. 2TER BD. 1TES STÜCK HANDBUCH DER GRUNDSÄTZE. FORSTWIRTHSCHAFT. 2TER BD. §52. 195. THEERSCHWELEN WIESENHOFER ÜBER DAS THEERSCHWELEN ODER PECHBRENNEN. BRESLAU 1793. 4. MIT 6 KUPFERN Wiesenhavern, Ludolf Heinrich Just, 1793: Abhandlung über das Theer- oder Pechbrennen. Breslau [u.a.]Korn. OECOOMIA FORENSIS. VII. 30 Kretzschmer,Johann, Karl, 1775-1784: Oeconomia forensis oder kurzer Inbegriff derjenigen landwirthschaftlichen Wahrheiten, welche allen sowohl hohen als niedrigen Gerichts-Personen zu wissen nöthig. Berlin. 1.1775 - 8.1784; damit Ersch. eingest. Kretzschmer, Johann Karl. 1833: Oeconomia forensis oder Inbegriff derjenigen Grundsätze und Bestimmungen: welche dem Juristen von der Landwirthschaft u. d. Oekonomen von d. Rechte zu wissen nöthig sind…/bearb. von Johann Carl Kretzschmer. Berlin. Kretschmer Johann, Carl. 1833: Oeconomia forensis oder Inbegriff derjenigen Grundsätze und Bestimmungen, welche dem Juristen von der Landwirthschaft und dem Ökonomen von dem Rechte zu wissen nöthig sind: nach

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dem jetzigen Standpunkte des landwirthschaftlichen Gewerbes mit Berücksichtigung der preußischen Gesetzgebung und des gemeinen Rechts// Johann Carl Kretzschmer. - Berlin: Rücker, 1833-1835. V. USSLAR FORSTWISSENSCHAFTLICHE BEMERKUNGEN. BRAUSCHWEIG 1792 v. Ußlar 1792: Forstwissenschaftliche Bemerkungen auf einer Reise J. J. von Uslar .Braunschweig, 1792. ABHANDLUNGEN DER SCHWEDISCHEN AKAD. DER WISSENSCHAFTEN. XVI BD. DÜHAMEL DU MONCEAU. NATURGESCHICHTE DER BÄUME Duhamel du Monceau, Henri Louis; Oelhafen von Schöllenbach, Carl Christoph; Winterschmidt, Adam Wolfgang 1764- 1765: Natur-Geschichte der Bäume, darin von der Zergliederung der Pflanzen und der Einrichtung ihres Wachsens gehandelt wird; als einer Einleitung zur vollständigen Abhandlung von Wäldern und Hölzern. Nebst einer Abhandlung über den Nutzen der Botanischen Lehr-Arten; Und einer Erklärung derer in dieser Wissenschaft, und bey dem Forst-Wesen gebräuchlichen Kunst-Wörter: Nürnberg ; Winterschmidt ; [Nürnberg]; De Launoy; 1764 – 1765. V. FEILISCH. ÖKONOM. PRAKTISCHE BEMERKUNGEN. 3TER BD. HOFF. 1803 Feilitsch L.C. von 1800: Oekonomisch-praktische Bemerkungen über den Ackerbau Hof 1800. SCHREDERS NEUE SAMMLUNG VERSCH. SCHRIFTEN AUS DEN ÖKONOM. WISSENSCHAFTEN. WEIMAR 1762 – 1765 Schröder, Friedrich Josef Wilhelm, 1775-1776: Friedrich Joseph Wilhelm Schröders neue Sammlung der Bibliothek für die höhere Naturwissenschaft und Chemie. Marburg; Cassel. Praktische Bemerkungen zur Forstwissenschaft: gesammlet und herausgegeben zum Unterricht derer, so sich diesem Fache gewidmet haben Frankfurt, M.: Varrentrapp und Wenner 1/2.1783 - 3.1785. JOURNAL FÜR DAS FORST- UND JAGDWESEN VON REITTER. 2TEN BDS. 1TES STÜCK Journal für das Forst- und Jagdwesen. [Hrsg.: Johann Daniel Reitter] Leipzig Crussius. 1790- 1799. HERMBSTÄDT AGRICULTURCHEMIE. 4TE ABTHEIL; BERGIUS KAMERALMAGAZIN. 3TER BD. S. 304 Policey- und Cameral-Magazin: in welchem nach alphabetischer Ordnung die vornehmsten und wichtigsten bey dem Policey- und Cameralwesen vorkommende Materien nach richtigen und vernünftigen Grundsätzen practisch abgehandelt und durch landesherrliche Gesetze und hin und wieder wirklich gemachte Einrichtungen erläutert werden / Johann Heinrich Ludwig Bergius. Beteiligt: Berg, Johann Heinrich Ludwig. Frankfurt am Mayn : Andreae 1.1767 - 9.1774. BIRKENTHEER ZU GEWINNEN LAPUCHIN REISE DURCH RUSSLAND. ALTENBURG 1774. S. 329 Lepechin, Ivan I.1774: Herrn Iwan Lepechin...Tagebuch der Reise durch verschiedene Provinzen des russischen Reiches : in den Jahren 1768 und 1769 : Altenburg, Verlag: Richter. BECKMAN ÖKONOM. BIBLIOTHEK. V. 553. TORF. VERKOHLUNG ZANTHIER ABHANDLUNG UEBER DAS THEORET. UND PRAKT. FORSTWESEN VON HENNERT. BERLIN. 1799. SANDER; UND UNTERRICHT VOM FORSTWESEN, ULM 1799, BEI STETTIN Zanthier Abhandlungen über das theoretische und praktische Forstwesen von Hennert, Berlin 1799. Sander: und Unterricht vom Torfwesen.Ulm 1797. Bei Stettin. Sammlungen vermischter Abhandlungen, das theoretische und practische Forstwesen betreffend. Zanthier, Hans Dietrich von Berlin; Wever; 1778 ; 135 S.: Kt. Hans Dieterich von Zanthier's ... Unterricht vom Torfwesen, besonders von der durch denselben am Harze eingeführten Verkohlung desselben/ Zanthier, Hans Dietrich von 1797. Ulm bei Stettin.

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Zanthier, Hans Dietrich von 1799; Hennert, Carl Wilhelm Abhandlungen über das theoretische und praktische Forstwesen; 2: Mit zwei Kupfertafeln (1799) Zanthier, Hans Dietrich von 1717 1778; Hennert, Carl Wilhelm 1738-1800 Berlin: Wever. FRENZEL FORSTCHEMIE Frenzel,Franz Christof Chemie für Forstmänner, Oekonomen und Botaniker von Franz Christoph Frenzel ; Nebst einer Vorr. v. (Wilhelm August) Lampadius. Lampadius, Wilhelm August *1772-1842*. EISELEN ,KENNTNISS DES TORFWESENS. BERLIN. 1802 Eiselen, Johann Christoph Berlin 1802 Kenntniss des Torfwesens. Handbuch oder ausführliche theoretisch-praktische Anleitung zur näheren Kenntniss des Torfwesens und Vorbereitung der Torfmoore, Behuf der nutzbarsten Anlage und Betrieb einzelner Torfgräbereyen, deren praktischen Betrieb selbst, sowohl in Rücksicht auf Holzschonung, als dem daraus entstehenden besondern und allgemeinen Nutzen, auch Wiederkultur der ausgestochenen Gründe&. Berlin; W. Viewig; 1802. Eiselen, Johann Christoph, 1793: Etwas über das Verkohlen des Torfs : Siehe, J. D.; Siede, Johann Christian [H. Berlin; Schön Neue Abhandlung der Schwed. Akademie der Wissenschaften. 2 ter Bd. S. 279. NEUE ABHANDLUNG DER SCHWED. AKADEMIE DER WISSENSCHAFTEN. 2TER BD. S. 279 SIEDE ETWAS ÜBER VERKOHLUNG DES HOLZES. BERLIN SCHOENE 1793 Siede, J. D.; Siede, Johann Christian 1793: Etwas über das Verkohlen des Torfs: Berlin; Schöne ; 1793; XII, S. 44. V. BOSE DAS GANZE DER TORFWISSENSCHAFT LEIPZIG. 1802 Bose, Carl, Adam, Heinrich von 1802: Das Ganze der Torfwissenschaft theoretisch und praktisch abgehandelt. Leipzig; Fleischer; 1802 ; XX, S. 308. FORST UND JAGDZEITUNG. 1828. S.605; MOSERS FORSTARCHIV. 21TER BD. S. 234 Forst-Archiv zur Erweiterung der Forst- und Jagd-Wissenschaft und der Forst- und Jagd Literatur/hrsg. von Wilhelm Gottfried von Moser. Ulm: Stettin 1.1788 - 17.1796. THEERSCHWELEN WIESENHOFER ÜBER DAS THEERSCHWELEN ODER PECHBRENNEN. BRESLAU 1793. 4. MIT 6 KUPFERN Wiesenhavern, Ludolf Heinrich Just, 1793: Abhandlung über das Theer- oder Pechbrennen. Breslau [u.a.] Korn. OECOOMIA FORENSIS. VII.30 Kretzschmer,Johann, Karl, 1775-1784: Oeconomia forensis oder kurzer Inbegriff derjenigen landwirthschaftlichen Wahrheiten, welche allen sowohl hohen als niedrigen Gerichts-Personen zu wissen nöthig. Berlin. 1.1775 - 8.1784; damit Ersch. eingest. Kretzschmer, Johann Karl. 1833: Oeconomia forensis oder Inbegriff derjenigen Grundsätze und Bestimmungen : welche dem Juristen von der Landwirthschaft u. d. Oekonomen von d. Rechte zu wissen nöthig sind .../bearb. von Johann Carl Kretzschmer.Berlin: Rücker. Kretschmer Johann, Carl. 1833: Oeconomia forensis oder Inbegriff derjenigen Grundsätze und Bestimmungen, welche dem Juristen von der Landwirthschaft und dem Ökonomen von dem Rechte zu wissen nöthig sind: nach dem jetzigen Standpunkte des landwirthschaftlichen Gewerbes mit Berücksichtigung der preußischen Gesetzgebung und des gemeinen Rechts// Johann Carl Kretzschmer. - Berlin: Rücker, 1833-1835. V. USSLAR FORSTWISSENSCHAFTLICHE BEMERKUNGEN. BRAUSCHWEIG 1792 v. Ußlar 1792: Forstwissenschaftliche Bemerkungen auf einer Reise J. J. von Uslar .Braunschweig, 1792.

ABHANDLUNGEN DER SCHWEDISCHEN AKAD. DER WISSENSCHAFTEN. XVI BD. DÜHAMEL DU MONCEAU. NATURGESCHICHTE DER BÄUME Duhamel du Monceau, Henri Louis; Oelhafen von Schöllenbach, Carl Christoph; Winterschmidt, Adam Wolfgang 1764 - 1765: Natur-Geschichte der Bäume, darin von der Zergliederung der Pflanzen und der Einrichtung ihres

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Wachsens gehandelt wird; als einer Einleitung zur vollständigen Abhandlung von Wäldern und Hölzern. Nebst einer Abhandlung über den Nutzen der Botanischen Lehr-Arten; Und einer Erklärung derer in dieser Wissenschaft, und bey dem Forst-Wesen gebräuchlichen Kunst-Wörter: Nürnberg; Winterschmidt; [Nürnberg]; De Launoy;1764 – 1765. V.FEILISCH. ÖKONOM. PRAKTISCHE BEMERKUNGEN. 3TER BD. HOFF. 1803. Feilitsch L.C. von 1800: Oekonomisch-praktische Bemerkungen über den Ackerbau Hof 1800.

SCHREDERS NEUE SAMMLUNG VERSCH. SCHRIFTEN AUS DEN ÖKONOM. WISSENSCHAFTEN. WEIMAR 1762- 1765 Schröder, Friedrich Josef Wilhelm, 1775-1776: Friedrich Joseph Wilhelm Schröders neue Sammlung der Bibliothek für die höhere Naturwissenschaft und Chemie. Marburg; Cassel.

PRAKTISCHE BEMERKUNGEN ZUR FORSTWISSENSCHAFT: GESAMMLET UND HERAUSGEGEBEN ZUM UNTERRICHT DERER, SO SICH DIESEM FACHE GEWIDMET HABEN FRANKFURT, M.: VARRENTRAPP UND WENNER 1/2.1783 – M 3.1785

JOURNAL FÜR DAS FORST- UND JAGDWESEN VON REITTER. 2TEN BDS. 1TES STÜCK JOURNAL FÜR DAS FORST- UND JAGDWESEN. [HRSG.: JOHANN DANIEL REITTER] LEIPZIG CRUSSIUS. 1790 – 1799 HERMBSTÄDT AGRICULTURCHEMIE. 4TE ABTHEIL BERGIUS KAMERALMAGAZIN. 3TER BD. S. 304 Johann Heinrich Ludwig Bergius, Gräfl. Sayn- Hohen- und Wittgensteinischen Hofcammerraths Neues Policey- und Cameral-Magazin nach alphabetischer Ordnung. Leipzig: Bey M.G. Weidmanns Erben und Reich, 1775. Policey- und Cameral-Magazin: in welchem nach alphabetischer Ordnung die vornehmsten und wichtigsten bey dem Policey- und Cameralwesen vorkommende Materien nach richtigen und vernünftigen Grundsätzen practisch abgehandelt und durch landesherrliche Gesetze und hin und wieder wirklich gemachte Einrichtungen erläutert werden/Johann Heinrich Ludwig Bergius. Beteiligt: Berg, Johann Heinrich Ludwig. Frankfurt am Mayn: Andreae 1.1767 – 9.1774. BIRKENTHEER ZU GEWINNEN LAPUCHIN REISE DURCH RUSSLAND. ALTENBURG 1774. S. 329 Lepechin, Ivan I.1774: Herrn Iwan Lepechin ... Tagebuch der Reise durch verschiedene Provinzen des russischen Reiches: in den Jahren 1768 und 176 : Altenburg, Verlag: Richter. BECKMAN ÖKONOM. BIBLIOTHEK. V. 553. Beckmann, Johann 1770-1806: Physikalisch-ökonomische Bibliothek: worinn von den neuesten Büchern, welche die Naturgeschichte, Naturlehre und die Land- und Stadtwirthschaft betreffen, zuverlässige und vollständige Nachrichten ertheilet werden/ von Johann Beckman. Göttingen: Vandenhoek & Ruprecht. MASTERTRAG UND MASTBENUTZUNG OECONOMIA FORENSIS VII. 124. 170 Kretzschmer,Johann Karl, Oeconomia forensis oder kurzer Inbegriff derjenigen landwirthschaftlichen Wahrheiten, welche allen sowohl hohen als niedrigen Gerichts-Personen zu wissen nöthig, Berlin, 1.1775 - 8.1784; damit Ersch. eingest. Kretschmer Johann, Carl. 1833: Oeconomia forensis oder Inbegriff derjenigen Grundsätze und Bestimmungen, welche dem Juristen von der Landwirthschaft und dem Ökonomen von dem Rechte zu wissen nöthig sind: nach dem jetzigen Standpunkte des landwirthschaftlichen Gewerbes mit Berücksichtigung der preußischen Gesetzgebung und des gemeinen Rechts// Johann Carl Kretzschmer. - Berlin : Rücker, 1833-1835. SIERSTORPF MONOGRAPHIE DER EICHE

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Sierstorpff, Kaspar Heinrich, von 1796: Über die forstmäßige Erziehung, Erhaltung und Benutzung der vorzüglichsten inländischen Holzarten / Von C. H. von Sierstorpff; Theil 1 Welcher die Forst-Botanik, die Naturkunde der Bäume überhaupt und die Beschreibung der Eiche enthält Mit ill. Kupfern. Hannover: Hahn. BURGSDORF FORSTHANDBUCH. 1TER BD. S. 531 Burgsdorf, Friedrich August Ludwig 1795: Forsthandbuch. Allgemeiner theoretisch-praktischer Lehrbegriff sämtlicher Försterwissenschaften; Nebst vielen Tabellen und einer illumin. Forstkarte … abgefaßt von F. A. L. von Burgsdorf, Königl. Preuß. Geheimen-Rath, demnächst Oberforstmeister der Churmark Brandenburg ... Dritte verbesserte Auflage .Frankfurt; Leipzig. Walther, Friedrich Ludwig Giessen: Heyer, 1809. BERGIUS KAMERALMAGAZIN. 2TER, 9TER BD. Policey - und Cameral-Magazin: in welchem nach alphabetischer Ordnung die vornehmsten und wichtigsten bey dem Policey - und Cameralwesen vorkommende Materien nach richtigen und vernünftigen Grundsätzen practisch abgehandelt und durch landesherrliche Gesetze und hin und wieder wirklich gemachte Einrichtungen erläutert werden/Johann Heinrich Ludwig Bergius. - Frankfurt am Mayn: Andreae 1.1767 - 9.1774. Polizei- und Kameral-Magazin: nach alphabetischer Ordnung / hrsg. von J. H. L. Bergius .Bergius, Johann Heinrich Ludwig. Wien: Trattner 1.1786 - 7.1791. Neues Policey- und Cameral-Magazin: nach alphabetischer Ordnung/Johann Heinrich Ludwig Bergius. Berg, Johann Heinrich LudwigLeipzig : Weidmanns Erben u. Reich 1.1775 - 6.1780. Policey- und Cameral-Magazin: in welchem nach alphabetischer Ordnung die vornehmsten und wichtigsten bey dem Policey- und Cameralwesen vorkommende Materien nach richtigen und vernünftigen Grundsätzen practisch abgehandelt und durch landesherrliche Gesetze und hin und wieder wirklich gemachte Einrichtungen erläutert werden/Johann Heinrich Ludwig Bergius Beteiligt: Berg, Johann Heinrich Ludwig. Frankfurt am Mayn: Andreae. 1.1767 - 9.177. ABHANDLUNGEN DER CELLISCHEN GESELLSCHAFT. CELLE 1787. S. 187 Neue Abhandlungen und Nachrichten der Königl. Großbritt. Churfürstl. Braunschweig-Lüneburgischen Landwirthschafts-Gesellschaft zu Celle. Königliche Großbrittannische Churfürstliche Braunschweigische Lüneburgische Landwirthschaftsgesellschaft .Hannover; Hahn; 1787-1794. WALTHER, DIE FORSTWISENSACHAFT. S. 216 Walther, Friedrich Ludwig 1787: Friederich Ludwig Walthers Handbuch der Forstwissenschaft für Forstbediente, Landwirthe, Polizeybeamte, Cammeralisten, Richter, Gerichtsverwalter und diejenigen, die es werden wollen: Anspach; Haueisen. Walther, Friedrich Ludwig 1795: Lehrbuch der Forstwissenschaft: Giessen; Heyer. Walther, Friedrich Ludwig 1809: Lehrbuch der Forstwissenschaft: Giessen: Heyer. JOURNAL F. D, FORST: UND JAGDW. 1TER BD. 1TES HEFT S. 109 Journal für das Forst- und Jagdwesen (1790). Reitter, Johann Daniel. Leipzig: Crusius; [1.1790/91 - 5.1797/99; damit Ersch. eingest].

MOSERS FORSTARCHIV. 29TER BD Forst-Archiv zur Erweiterung der Forst- und Jagd-Wissenschaft und der Forst- und Jagd-Literatur Moser, Wilhelm Gottfried von Ulm; Stettin; 1788-1796. HENNERT TAXATION. 2TER BD. S. 115 Hennert, Carl, Wilhelm, 1791: Anweisung zu Taxation der Forsten nach den hierüber ergangenen und bereits bey vielen Forsten in Ausübung gebrachten Königl. Preuß. Verordnungen. 1: Mit zwey illuminirten Kupfern. – Berlin, Stettin; Nicolai, 1791. KRÜNITZ ENCYKLOPEDIE. 85TER BD. S. 368 und 430 HARTIG ANWEISUNG UND AUFSTELLUNG JÄHRLICHER WIRTSCHAFTZSPLANE. GIESSEN. 1826, S. 35 Hartig, Ernst Friedrich 1773-1843, Anweisung zur Aufstellung und Ausführung der jährlichen Forstwirthschaftspläne nach Maßgabe einer systematischen Forstbetriebs-Einrichtung: nebst X Tabellen (1826) Giessen: Heyer.

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MAYER ZEITSCHRIFT FÜR BAIERN. 2TER BD, 6TES HEFT Mayer Zeitschrift für Baiern und die angränzenden Länder. 1816- 117. München. Dessen Fortsdirektionslehre §. 326. etc. MEYER, JOHANN CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH [1777-1854] FORSTDIRECTIONSLEHRE NACH DEN GRUNDSÄTZEN DER REGIERUNGSPOLITIK UND FORSTWISSENSCHAFT/VON JOHANN CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH MEYER WÜRZBURG: STAHEL, 1820 BEITRÄGE ZUR FORST- UND KAMERALWSSENSCHAFT. S. 372 HOBBE FREIMÜTHIGE GEDANCKEN, S. 177 MOSERS FORSTARCHIV. 15 BD. S. 51. 29TER BD. S. 3 Forst Archiv zur Erweiterung der Forst- und Jagd-Wissenschaft und der Forst- und Jagd-Literatur/hrsg. von Wilhelm Gottfried von Moser. - Ulm: Stettin 1.1788 - 17.1796. Streszczenie: Krytyczne repertorium nauk leśnych i jej nauk pomocniczych Wilhelma Pfeila 1830, jako przykład bogactwa literatury na temat drewna i produktów z drzewnych w 19 wieku (część 2). W artykule autorzy przedstawili kolejny – drugi wybór dzieł napisanych przez profesora Wilhelma Pfeila, dotyczących nauk leśnych, w którym zawarto zestawienie rozpraw na temat rodzajów i właściwości drewna. Pokazuje on, jak szeroko w literaturze związanej z drzewnictwem z początku 19 wieku przedstawiano zagadnienia technik i technologii przerobu drewna. Tytuły książek zostały podane przez autorów na dwa sposoby tzn. jako cytowania zaczerpnięte z prof. Arrow, oraz sposób pozwalający na ich znalezienie w katalogach bibliotek w 21 wieku (kursywa oprócz oryginalnych tytułów).

Corresponding authors: Ewa Dobrowolska, Mieczysław Matejak Paweł Kozakiewicz Grzegorz Bernatowicz, Wydział Technologii Drewna, Szkoła Główna Gospodarstwa Wiejskiego w Warszawie ul. Nowoursynowska 159, 02 – 776 Warszawa, e-mail: ewa_dobrowolskaggw.pl e-mail: [email protected]

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Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences - SGGW Forestry and Wood Technology № 93, 2016: 30-36 (Ann. WULS - SGGW, For. and Wood Technol. 93, 2016) Flora of pine forests on former farmlands and in ancient forests

in the Chojnów Forest District

WOJCIECH CIURZYCKI, KATARZYNA MARCISZEWSKA

Department of Forest Botany, Warsaw University of Life Sciences - SGGW, 159 Nowoursynowska St., 02-776 Warsaw Abstract: Present work concerns the botanical characteristics and comparison of pine forest communities developed on former farmland or in ancient forest. Floristic investigations were carried on in a broader research focused on the structure and properties of pine stem wood. Floristic data were collected in the pine stands from which trees were selected and wood samples taken for anatomical and physical investigations. The aim of the study is to describe the flora on former farmlands and in ancient forests within two types of habitat representing different trophy vairaints: the fresh coniferous forests and the fresh mixed coniferous forest. All four plots differ in terms of the characteristics of local flora. Plots located in the fresh mixed coniferous forest habitat are richer in species than those in the fresh coniferous forest habitat. Within both habitats those located on former farmland are slightly richer in species. Number of anthropophytes and apophytes is higher on former farmland than in the ancient forest, while the number of ancient forest species is lower on former farmland of both trophy variants. Key words: fresh coniferous forest, fresh mixed coniferous forest, species richness, anthropophytes, apophytes, ancient forests indicator species INTRODUCTION

Forests have appeared on former farmlands throughout the history of civilization. Frequently, due to various historical events in vast areas of Europe, including Poland, the deforestations and reappearances of forests occurred numerous times (Broda 1985, Peterken 1996). Today, the role of humanity in both creating anthropogenic habitats and initiating the encroachment of woody plants onto abandoned farmlands is much greater. Initially, the encroachment likely took place through a natural secondary succession, whereas in today’s Europe, it is a result of intentional afforestation (Mather 1993, Szwagrzyk 2004).

The issue of the appearance, development, and characteristics of groundcover in forests on former farmlands was the subjects of numerous studies. European and American research usually approaches the forest floor from the viewpoint of flora (Peterken, Game 1984, Whitney, Foster 1988, Matlack 1994, Brunet, von Oheimb 1998, Honnay et al. 1998, Singleton et al. 2001, Hermy, Verheyen et al. 2003). Polish research in secondary forests also addressed various aspects of flora (Dzwonko, Loster 1992, Dzwonko 1993, Dzwonko, Loster 1997, Fudali 1997, Dzwonko 2001b, Woziwoda 2010).

Studies on the flora of secondary forests and its comparisons with primary forests gave rise to a new concept and separate category of the “ancient forest” (Peterken 1974, 1977, Rackham 1980). Ancient forests are not necessarily old in the sense of the age of trees; their permanence in a given area is meant. This criterion is met by primary forests and those secondary forests that have been growing for a long enough time, i.e., for several tree generations. These ancient forests include certain plant species that although possess the capability to colonize secondary forests, i.e., on former farmlands, but the process is very slow and longlasting. In particular, such plants are usually absent in the first generation of stands. Thus, ancient forest species have a diagnostic value in research on forests. Polish researchers developed a list of such species for fertile habitats, which show a particularly high diversity of flora (Dzwonko, Loster 2001). The method was applied in later studies addressing forests on former farmlands (Wulf 1997, Orczewska 2004, 2007). Concept of ancient forests

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and their indicator species applies also to pine stands but to a lesser degree mainly because the original list concerns fertile habitats (Dzwonko, Loster 2001).

This work is part of a broader project devoted primarily to research the properties of wood from forests growing on former farmland or ancient forests sites within two habitats representing different trophy: the fresh coniferous forest and the fresh mixed coniferous forest. Research presented here concerns to the botanical characteristics of forest communities from which trees were selected and wood samples taken to the anatomical and physical investigations. The aim of this study is to describe the flora on former farmlands and in ancient forests within two types of habitat: the fresh coniferous forests and the fresh mixed coniferous forest. RESEARCH AREA

Chojnów Forest District is located in the central part of Poland, in the Masovian Voivodeship, on the left bank of the Vistula River, in the vicinity of Warsaw. Forests in the District adjoin the city from the southwest and, together with three other forest districts (Celestynów, Jabłonna, and Drewnica), form the Warsaw Forests Promotion Complex, which also include Kampinos National Park.

According to physicogeographical regionalization, the Chojnów Forest District is located on the Central Polish Lowland within the North European Plain. The Central Polish Lowland is dominated by glacial uplands with no lakes, though it also includes depressions, basins, valleys, and water accumulation plains, partially covered with dunes (Kondracki 1994, Kondracki, Richling 1994). According to the geobotanical division of Poland (Szafer, Zarzycki 1977), the Chojnów Forest District is located in the Lowland-Upland Central European Province, within the Baltic Sector, in the Masovian Region, and encompasses two districts: the Rawa District and the Warsaw District. MATERIAL AND METHODS

The plots and stands in areas differing in terms of the manner of exploitation, i.e., ancient forests and former farmlands, and divided into two types of forest habitat based on fertility were selected in the Chojnów Forest District by means of site inspection preceded by interviews with local forest management staff and analysis of the history of stands taken from Forest Management Plans. The plots were located as follows:

1. ancient forest, fresh coniferous forest - Sękocin Forest Administration Region, compartment 40b.

2. former farmland, fresh coniferous forest - Sękocin Forest Administration Region, compartment 56a.

3. ancient forest, fresh mixed coniferous forest - Uwieliny Forest Administration Region, compartment 214g.

4. former farmland, fresh mixed coniferous forest - Bogatki Forest Administration Region, compartment 447a.

Fieldwork was conducted in summer 2011. Five phytosociological relevés with a surface area of 100 m2 each were taken for each plot using the Braun-Blanquet (1928) method, commonly used in Poland, in modification by Maarel (1979). Species richness on the analysed plots was calculated and compared with the rarefaction curves using the EstimateS 9 program (Colwell 2013).

The names of species of vascular plants were taken from Mirek et al. (2002). The syntaxonomic status of the species was taken from Matuszkiewicz (2008). Synanthropic plants (Tokarska-Guzik et al. 2012) were categorised into anthropophytes (Mirek et al. 2002) and apophytes (Zając, Zając 1992). The species of ancient forests were taken from Dzwonko and Loster (2001).

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

A total of 72 species of vascular plants of 18 species of mosses were found on the four plots and in the 20 phytosociological relevés. Layer A1 comprised 2 species of trees, layer A2 – 4 species of trees, layer B – 15 species of trees and bushes, layer C – 69 species of herbaceous plants and seedlings of trees and bushes, and layer D – 18 species of mosses. The plots located in the fresh mixed coniferous forest habitat show significantly higher species richness than those located in the fresh coniferous forest habitat. As far as individual habitats are concerned, those located on former farmlands show slightly higher species richness, with the difference for the fresh coniferous forest being statistically significant (Fig. 1).

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Figure 1. Species richness of flora on the four studied plots located in pine stands in the Chojnów Forest District presented using rarefaction curves. Legend: 1 – ancient forest, fresh coniferous forest; 2 – former farmland, fresh coniferous forest; 3 – ancient forest, fresh mixed coniferous forest; 4 – former farmland, fresh mixed coniferous forest.

The identified species include 5 anthropophytes (i.e. Padus serotina, Impatiens

parviflora, Melandrium album, Solidago canadensis, and S. gigantea) and 20 species considered apophytes. A total of 15 species from the lists of ancient forest species were identified on the analysed plots: Dryopteris carthusiana, Luzula pilosa, Maianthemum

bifolium, Melampyrum pratense, Melica nutans, Moehringia trinervia, Mycelis muralis, Poa

nemoralis, Polygonatum odoratum, Pteridum aquilinum, Solidago virgaurea, Trientalis

europaea, Vaccinium myrtillus, V. vitis-idaea, and Viola reichenbachiana. The number of species representing anthropophytes, apophytes and ancient forest species is clearly differentiated between plots (Fig. 2).

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Figure 2. The number of species of antropophytes, apophytes and ancient forest species on the research plots. Legend: 1 – ancient forest, fresh coniferous forest; 2 – former farmland, fresh coniferous forest; 3 – ancient forest, fresh mixed coniferous forest; 4 – former farmland, fresh mixed coniferous forest.

The plots included anthropophytes indicating that the flora of the studied plant communities had been disturbed. In forest floor layer it is primarily Small Balsam (Impatiens

parviflora), which was identified in fairly large numbers in all relevés of plot 3, i.e., fresh mixed coniferous forest in ancient forest areas. The most expansive species within the shrub layer is the black cherry (Padus serotina) (small specimens are also present in the forest floor), which appears on former farmlands but in fresh coniferous forest. The most significant native species, but here beyond its natural range, is the common beech (Fagus sylvatica), present on former farmlands in both types of habitat. The number of antropophytes species is always higher on former farmland irrespective the habitat trophy, and the highest in fresh mixed coniferous forest.

Not all apophytes, i.e., native species migrating from natural habitats into anthropogenic ones, necessarily constitute a measure of phytocenosis disturbance, as their sites in a given area may be natural. Such species identified on the analysed plots in ancient forests include Rumex acetosella in fresh coniferous forest and Anthoxantum odoratum in fresh mixed coniferous forest. However, some of these species, despite being native to Poland, appear commonly and in large numbers in synanthropic communities, while in natural communities, such as forests, they appear in secondary sites related to anthropogenic influence. On the analysed plots, these species are represented by a group that, despite only being present in some relevés and in very small numbers, is fairly numerous on former farmlands: Artemisia vulgaris, Carex hirta, Dactylis glomerata, Galium mollugo, Hypochoeris radicata, Knautia arvensis, Lapsana communis, Linaria vulgaris, Sambucus

nigra, Stellaria media, and Taraxacum officinale.

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Ancient forests, in turn, could be expected to include a group of species that are either absent or present more rarely and in smaller numbers on former farmlands. The analysed plots also include a fairly numerous group of species that clearly show these exact preferences: Maianthemum bifolium, Melica nutans, Moehringia trinervia, Mycelis muralis, Poa

nemoralis, Polygonatum odoratum, Pteridium aquilinum, Vaccinium vitis-idaea, and Viola

reichenbachiana. The relevés also show some ancient forest species that in this case do not display the expected preferences, however they are much less numerous and appear individually (Luzula pilosa and Melampyrum pratense). Especially notable is one of the most important ancient forest indicator species in coniferous forest habitats, namely, the European blueberry (Matuszkiewicz et al. 2015). In fresh coniferous forest, the species has a relatively low and similar coverage on both types of soil. However, the expected difference is extremely clear in fresh mixed coniferous forest. On the plot on the former farmland the species occurred in only one relevé with quantitativeness (+), while in the ancient forest the species is present in all relevés with quantitativeness 3 in one case and 4 in the other four relevés. On this habitat forest vegetation on former farmland and ancient forest is different not only due to species richness but also due to the structure and physiognomy of plant community. CONCLUSIONS 1. A total of 72 species of vascular plants and 18 species of mosses were noted on the analysed plots, including 5 anthropophytes, 20 species considered apophytes, and 15 ancient forest species. 2. All four plots differ in terms of the characteristics of local flora. 3. Plots located in the fresh mixed coniferous forest habitat are considerably richer in species than those in the fresh coniferous forest habitat. Within the both habitats slightly richer in species are those located on former farmland. 4. Irrespective the habitat trophy, the number of antropophytes and apophytes is higher on former farmland than in the ancient forest, while the number of ancient forest species is lower on former farmland. REFERENCES

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10. FUDALI E. 1997. Brioflora terenów porolnych miasta Szczecina. Przegl. Przyr. 8 (1-2): 135-140.

11. HERMY M., VERHEYEN K. 2007. Legacies of the past in the present-day forest biodiversity: a review of past land-use effects on forest plant species composition and diversity. Ecological Research 22: 361-371.

12. HONNAY O., DEGROOTE B., HERMY M. 1998. Ancient-forest plant species in western Belgium: a species list and possible ecological mechanisms. Belgian Journal of Botany 130: 139-154.

13. KONDRACKI J. 1994. Geografia Polski. Mezoregiony fizyczno-geograficzne. PWN, Warszawa.

14. KONDRACKI J., RICHLING A. 1994. Regiony fizycznogeograficzne. W: 1993-1997. Atlas Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej. Główny Geodeta Kraju. Warszawa, mapa 53.3.

15. MAAREL, VAN DER, E. 1979. “Transformation of cover-abundance values in phytosociology and its effects on community similarity”. Vegetatio 39: 97-114.

16. MATHER A. (red.) 1993. Afforestation. Policies, planning and progres. Belhaven Press, London.

17. MATLACK G. R. 1994. Plant species migration in a mixed-history forest landscape in eastern North America. Ecology 75: 1491-1502.

18. MATUSZKIEWICZ W. 2008. Przewodnik do oznaczania zbiorowisk roślinnych Polski. Wyd. Naukowe PWN, Warszawa, pp. 537.

19. MATUSZKIEWICZ J.M., SOLON J., KOWALSKA A. 2015. Rekolonizacja borówki czernicy w borach sosnowych i mieszanych na gruntach porolnych. Studia i Materiały Centrum Edukacji Przyrodniczo-Leśnej 42(1): 220-235.

20. MIREK Z., PIEKOŚ-MIRKOWA H., ZAJĄC A, ZAJĄC M. 2002. Flowering plants and pteridophytes of Poland – a checklist. Krytyczna lista roślin naczyniowych Polski. Biodiversity of Poland. Vol. 1, W. Szafer Institute of Botany, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kraków, pp. 442.

21. ORCZEWSKA A. 2004. Isolated forest remnants as refugia of ancient woodland flora. Ecological Questions 4: 91-98.

22. ORCZEWSKA A. 2007. Znaczenie starych lasów w procesie renaturalizacji runa leśnego w lasach wtórnych pochodzenia porolnego. Studia i Materiały Centrum Edukacji Przyrodniczo-Leśnej 9 (2/3): 356-369.

23. PETERKEN G.F. 1974. A method for assessing woodland flora for conservation using indicator species. Biol. Conserv. 6: 239-245.

24. PETERKEN G.F. 1977. Habitat conservation priorities in British and European woodlands. . Biol. Conserv. 11: 223-236.

25. PETERKEN G.F. 1996. Natural woodland. Ecology and conservation in northern temperate regions. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 522.

26. PETERKEN G.F., Game M. 1984. Historical factors affecting the number and distribution of vascular plant species in the woodlands of Central Lincolnshire. J. Ecol. 72: 155-182.

27. RACKHAM O. 1980. Ancient woodland, its history, vegetation and uses in England. Edward Arnold, London, pp. 402.

28. SINGLETON R., GARDESCU S., MARKS P.L., GEBER M. 2001. Forest herb colonization of post-agricultural forests in central New York State, USA. J. Ecol. 89: 325-338.

29. SZAFER W., ZARZYCKI K. (red.). 1977. Szata roślinna Polski. PWN, Warszawa, T. II: ss. 347.

30. Szwagrzyk J. 2004. Sukcesja leśna na gruntach porolnych; stan obecny, prognozy i wątpliwości. Sylwan 148 (4): 53-59.

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31. TOKARSKA-GUZIK B., DAJDOK Z., ZAJĄC M., ZAJĄC A., URBISZ A., DANIELEWICZ W., HOŁDYŃSKI C. 2012. Rośliny obcego pochodzenia w Polsce ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem gatunków inwazyjnych. Generalna Dyrekcja Ochrony Środowiska, Warszawa, pp. 197.

32. VERHEYEN K., GUNTENSPERGEN G.R., BIESBROUCK B., HERMY M. 2003. An integrated analysis of the effects of past land use on forest herb colonization at the landscape scale. J. Ecol. 91: 731-742.

33. WHITNEY G. C., FOSTER D. R. 1988. Overstorey composition and age as determinants of the understorey flora of woods of central New England. J. Ecol. 76: 867-876.

34. WOZIWODA B. 2010. Różnorodność gatunkowa flory roślin naczyniowych w różnowiekowych lasach na gruntach porolnych na przykładzie traw. Studia i Materiały CEPL, R. 12, 2(25): 405-416.

35. WULF M. 1997. Plant species as indicators of ancient woodland in northwestern Germany. J. Veg. Sci. 8: 635-642.

36. ZAJĄC M., ZAJĄC A. 1992. A tentative list of segetal and ruderal apophytes in Poland. Zesz Nauk Uniw. Jagiell., Prace Bot. 24: 8–21.

Streszczenie: Flora borów sosnowych na gruntach porolnych i leśnych na terenie nadleśnictwa Chojnów. Praca jest częścią tematu poświęconego badaniom struktury i właściwości drewna pochodzącego z drzewostanów rosnących na gruntach porolnych na terenie Nadleśnictwa Chojnów. Zawiera charakterystykę florystyczną zbiorowisk leśnych na powierzchniach badawczych, z których pobrano drzewa i próbki do badań anatomicznych i fizycznych drewna. Celem niniejszych badań jest opisanie flory na gruntach porolnych i leśnych na dwóch typach siedlisk różniących się żyznością: boru świeżego i boru mieszanego świeżego. Badania florystyczne przeprowadzono na 4 powierzchniach, na każdej wykonano po 5 zdjęć fitosocjologicznych. Łącznie zanotowano występowanie 72 gatunków roślin naczyniowych i 18 mchów. Wśród stwierdzonych gatunków jest 5 antropofitów i 20 gatunków uznawanych za apofity oraz 15 gatunków wskaźnikowych starych lasów. Wszystkie cztery powierzchnie są zróżnicowane pod względem charakterystyki florystycznej. Powierzchnie położone na siedlisku BMśw są wyraźnie bogatsze gatunkowo niż położone na siedlisku Bśw. W obrębie poszczególnych siedlisk nieco bogatsze w gatunki są te położone na gruntach porolnych. Na obu badanych typach siedlisk liczba antropofitów i apofitów jest większa na gruntach porolnych niż w starym lesie, natomiast liczba gatunków starych lasów na obu siedliskach jest mniejsza na gruntach porolnych. Research carried out as a part of scientific grant N N309 108640 "Changes in the structure and properties of

wood of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) on former farmland, as a reaction to environmental stress", financed by

the Polish National Science Centre.

Corresponding author: Wojciech Ciurzycki Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW 159 Nowoursynowska St. 02-776 Warsaw, Poland email: [email protected]

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Vegetation of pine forests on former farmlands and in ancient forests

in the Chojnów Forest District

WOJCIECH CIURZYCKI, KATARZYNA MARCISZEWSKA

Department of Forest Botany, Warsaw University of Life Sciences - SGGW, 159 Nowoursynowska St., 02-776 Warsaw Abstract: Presented paper concerns the characteristics of forest communities as a part of a broader research focused on the structure and properties of stem wood of pines from forests growing on former farmland or ancient forests sites. Phytosociological data were collected on plots in pine stands from which trees were selected and wood samples taken for anatomical and physical investigations. On the fresh coniferous forest habitat, the communities constitute the impoverished transitional form between the suboceanic fresh coniferous forest association Leucobryo-Pinetum and the continental fresh coniferous forest association Peucedano-Pinetum. The forms representing the two types of land use history are weakly diversified on this habitat. The fresh mixed coniferous forest habitat constitutes the continental mixed coniferous forest Querco roboris-Pinetum. The association shows differentiation into the typical form on the ancient forest plot and the impoverished form on former farmlands, differing mainly by a small number of ancient forest indicator species. Association is deformed also by the presence of few but significant antropophytes, including expansive neophytes. Keywords: Leucobryo-Pinetum, Peucedano-Pinetum, Querco roboris-Pinetum, community structure, neophytes INTRODUCTION

The formation of forests on former farmland can occur through a natural secondary succession, but in today’s Europe, it is more often a result of intentional afforestation (Mather 1993, Szwagrzyk 2004). Scientist and practitioners alike are interested in the mechanism of this phenomenon and its variation as well as in the look of newly appearing forests and their functioning within the landscape and economy depending on how the return of the forest is initiated (Szwagrzyk 1997, 2004).

The most essential subjects from the geobotany viewpoint are the spontaneous creations of forest communities, the growth and characteristics of forest groundcover in both spontaneous forests and forests planted in various habitats with different stands, and the appearance and development of stands themselves. Development and characteristics of groundcover in forests on former farmlands was the subjects of numerous studies. In Europe and America, the study often focuses on vegetation and ecology of plant communities (Honnay et al. 1999, Dupouey et al. 2002, Honnay et al. 2002, Verheyen et al. 2003, Jacquemyn, Brys 2008). Polish research also addressed various aspects of the vegetation and ecology of plant communities in secondary forests (Dzwonko 2001, Orczewska 2009, Woziwoda, Ambrożkiewicz 2011, Woziwoda et al. 2014).

The most frequently abandoned farmlands (due to economic reasons) on the Polish lowlands are poor and mesotrophic. In most cases, the potential vegetation of these areas comprises forest stands dominated by pine. Pine is also the most important economic species. For this and other historical and demographic reasons, pine dominated in the post-war afforestation on former farmlands. The history, scope, and distribution of former farmland afforestation in Poland in the second half of the 20th century have been recapitulated by Smykała (1990). Many studies were conducted on pine forest stands created through this afforestation, albeit they usually addressed various practical issues important for forestry and the cultivation and use of pine stands.

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Geobotanical studies on vegetation were less numerous. The pine stands were planted not only on the corresponding coniferous forests habitats, but on more fertile habitats as well. This led to the establishment of many diverse replacement plant communities giving rise and great opportunity for research on vegetation (Jakubowska-Gabara 1989, Łaska 1997). While the subject still requires further research, recently new studies appeared that compared the flora of plant communities with pine established on former farmlands or in ancient forest on pine habitats (Góras, Orczewska 2007, Orczewska 2007, Orczewska, Ferens 2011, Matuszkiewicz et al. 2013a, 2015), including a comprehensive monograph (Matuszkiewicz et al. 2013b).

Fresh poor habitats with pine stands in the Polish lowland include two communities constituting geographical vicariants: the suboceanic fresh coniferous forest Leucobryo-

Pinetum and the continental fresh coniferous forest Peucedano-Pinetum, and, in slightly more fertile areas, the mixed coniferous forest Querco roboris-Pinetum (Matuszkiewicz 2008). Present work is part of the research on stem wood structure and properties in pines from stands on former farmlands or ancient forests within two habitats: the fresh coniferous forest and the fresh mixed coniferous forest. Research presented here concerns the characteristics of forest communities from which trees were selected and wood samples taken for anatomical and physical studies. The aim of this study is to describe the diversity of vegetation in the research area. RESEARCH AREA

The study was conducted in Chojnów Forest District, which is located in the central part of Poland in the vicinity of Warsaw. According to the natural and forest regionalization, the Chojnów Forest District is located in the IV Masovian-Podlasie natural and forest region, in the Podlasie Lowland and the Siedlce Upland and in the mesoregion of the Wołomin-Garwolin Plain (Zielony, Kliczkowska 2012).

The part of the District encompassing the largest forest complexes is protected as part of Chojnów Landscape Park. The natural assets of the Park, including forest vegetation, are described in a monograph (Falkowski et al. 2007a). The main forest-generating species in the Park is pine. Fresh coniferous forests, a habitat the pine prefers the most, make up only 7% of surface area, whereas fresh mixed coniferous forests make up over 1/3 (36.1%) of surface area (Falkowski 2007). The oak-hornbeam forest Tilio-Carpinetum dominates among the tree vegetation, while for coniferous habitats, the most frequent community is the continental mixed forest Querco roboris-Pinetum. Habitats with the least diversity include fresh coniferous forests. It should be noted that, according to Matuszkiewicz (2005), the Chojnów Forest District is located within the reach of the suboceanic fresh coniferous forests Leucobryo-Pinetum, and the southern border of its vicariant, the continental fresh coniferous forests Peucedano-Pinetum, reaches the Warsaw Basin at the northern border of the District. However, only the continental fresh coniferous forest Peucedano-Pinetum appears in the District, categorised as extremely sparse (Falkowski et al. 2007b). MATERIAL AND METHODS

Pine stands and plots in the Chojnów Forest District were selected by means of site inspection preceded by interviews with local forest management staff and analysis of the history of stands taken from Forest Management Plans.

In summer 2011 five phytosociological relevés with a surface area of 100 m2 each were taken for each of four research plot which varied in terms of the history of land use and habitat trophy. The relevés were numbered as follows: 1.1–1.5 – ancient forest, fresh coniferous forest (Sękocin Forest Administration Region, compartment 40b); 2.1–2.5 – former farmland, fresh coniferous forest (Sękocin Forest Administration Region,

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compartment 56a); 3.1–3.5 – ancient forest, fresh mixed coniferous forest (Uwieliny Forest Administration Region, compartment 214g), 4.1–4.5 – former farmland, fresh mixed coniferous forest (Bogatki Forest Administration Region, compartment 447a).

The phytosociological relevés were taken according the Braun-Blanquet (1928) method, modified by Maarel (1979). The data were subjected to a standard arithmetical transformation according to Tuxen and Ellenberg (1937) i.e. the degrees of quantitativeness were converted into percentage coverages by assigning the middle of a given coverage range for each degree of quantitativeness. Detrended correspondence analysis (DCA) was performed using the PAST 2.17 program (Hammer et al. 2001).

The names of vascular plants species are given after Mirek et al. (2002), and the names of mosses species according to Ochyra et al. (2003). The syntaxonomic status of the species was taken from Matuszkiewicz (2008). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The analysed plots differ in terms of the coverage of individual layers. Fresh coniferous forest plots show a higher coverage of layer D, i.e., the moss layer, whereas the fresh mixed coniferous forest habitats show the presence of two-storied tree stand. Within the fresh mixed coniferous forest habitat the differences between plots on grounds with different land use history are visible. On former farmlands, layer A2, i.e., the layer of the second storey of oak stand, is much more developed, while the forest floor layer is very weakly developed in terms of coverage (Fig. 1).

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Figure 1. Coverage of individual layers in plant communities on the research plots in pine stands in the Chojnów Forest District. Legend: 1.1-5 – fresh coniferous forest, ancient forest,; 2.1-5 –, fresh coniferous forest, former farmland; 3.1-5 – fresh mixed coniferous forest, ancient forest; 4.1-5 – fresh mixed coniferous forest, former farmland,

Ordination according to DCA was used in order to present the diversity of vegetation on the four analysed plots. The results are presented graphically for the two first ordination axes (Fig. 2).

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Figure 2. Vegetation diversity on the research plots in pine stands in the Chojnów Forest District according to DCA ordination. Legend: 1.1-5 – fresh coniferous forest, ancient forest; 2.1-5 –, fresh coniferous forest, former farmland; 3.1-5 – fresh mixed coniferous forest, ancient forest; 4.1-5 – fresh mixed coniferous forest, former farmland.

Phytosociological relevés representing individual plots diversified into three groups corresponding to three plant communities. One group comprises plots in fresh coniferous forest, which differ only slightly between the two types of past exploitation of ground. Two other, separate groups concern fresh mixed coniferous forest, where plots differ very clearly in terms of vegetation between ancient forest and former farmland.

The characteristic and distinguishing species of both vicariant associations of pine forests are rarely found in the fresh coniferous forest habitat, and when they do appear, they do so only in small numbers. This may be considered natural, as both associations are located at the borders of their ranges (Matuszkiewicz 2005), which means that species typical for the central parts of the ranges are also scarce. Consequently, the communities may be considered a transitional form between the suboceanic fresh coniferous forest association Leucobryo-

Pinetum and the continental fresh coniferous forest association Peucedano-Pinetum. The forms representing two types of land use history show a low diversity in this habitat, primarily due to a low number of the representatives of ancient forest indicator species. The plots on the former farmlands are distinguished by the presence of common beech (Fagus sylvatica) in the shrub layer.

Plant community on the fresh mixed coniferous forest habitat constitutes the association of continental mixed coniferous forest Querco roboris-Pinetum. The association shows a clear differentiation into the typical form in the ancient forest and the impoverished form on former farmlands, mainly due to the absence of numerous species of ancient forest. Association is disturbed also by the presence of few but significant anthropophytes, including expansive neophytes. In forest floor layer it is primarily Small Balsam (Impatiens parviflora),

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which was identified in fairly large numbers in all relevés of ancient forest plot. The most expansive species within the shrub layer (small specimens are also present in the forest floor) is the black cherry (Padus serotina), which appears on former farmlands plots. In the shrub layer on the former farmlands plots appears also common beech (Fagus sylvatica). This species is native to Poland, but here beyond its natural range, so its origin is anthropogenic and the status of antropophyte. The presence of this species distinguishes plots on former farmlands on both studied types of habitats. CONCLUSIONS 1. Plots in fresh coniferous forest show a higher coverage of the moss layer, whereas fresh mixed coniferous forest is notable for the presence of two-storied tree stand. On former farmlands in fresh mixed coniferous forest, the layer of the second storey of oak stand is much more developed, while the forest floor layer is very weakly developed in terms of coverage. 2. In the fresh coniferous forest habitat, the communities constitute the impoverished, transitional form between the suboceanic fresh coniferous forest association Leucobryo-

Pinetum and the continental fresh coniferous forest association Peucedano-Pinetum. The forms representing different land use history are weakly diversified on this habitat. 3. The fresh mixed coniferous forest habitat constitutes the continental mixed coniferous forest Querco roboris-Pinetum. The association shows a clear differentiation into the typical form on the ancient forest sites and the impoverished form on former farmlands, differing mainly with a small number of ancient forest indicator species. 4. The studied communities, especially the association Querco roboris-Pinetum, are also disturbed by the presence of synanthropic species, including the expansive neophytes, occurring to a greater extent on former farmland plots. REFERENCES

1. BRAUN-BLANQUET, J. 1928. Pflanzensoziologie. Grundzüge der Vegetationskunde. Biologische Studienbücher 7, Springer, Berlin.

2. DUPOUEY J.L., DAMBRINE E., LAFFITE J.D., MOARES C. 2002. Irreversible impact of past land use on forest soils and biodiversity. Ecology 83: 2978-2984.

3. DZWONKO Z. 2001. Effect of proximity of ancient deciduous woodland on restoration of the field layer vegetation in a pine plantation. Ecography 24: 198-204.

4. FALKOWSKI M. 2007. Lasy Chojnowskiego Parku Krajobrazowego. W: Falkowski M., Jeliński M., Nowicka-Falkowska K. (red.). Chojnowski Park Krajobrazowy. Monografia przyrodniczo-edukacyjna. Zespół Parków Krajobrazowych Mazowieckiego, Chojnowskiego i Brudzeńskiego, Otwock, s. 44-52.

5. FALKOWSKI M., JELIŃSKI M., NOWICKA-FALKOWSKA K. (ed.) 2007a. Chojnowski Park Krajobrazowy. Monografia przyrodniczo-edukacyjna. Zespół Parków Krajobrazowych Mazowieckiego, Chojnowskiego i Brudzeńskiego, Otwock, ss. 192.

6. FALKOWSKI M., KRECHOWSKI J., NOWICKA-FALKOWSKA K., PIÓREK K. 2007b. Roślinność leśna Chojnowskiego Parku Krajobrazowego. W: Falkowski M., Jeliński M., Nowicka-Falkowska K. (red.). Chojnowski Park Krajobrazowy. Monografia przyrodniczo-edukacyjna. Zespół Parków Krajobrazowych Mazowieckiego, Chojnowskiego i Brudzeńskiego, Otwock, s. 93-101.

7. GÓRAS P., ORCZEWSKA A. 2007. Zróżnicowanie runa w lasach sosnowych posadzonych na gruntach porolnych i w starych lasach sosnowych na siedlisku boru mieszanego świeżego. Przegl. Przyr. 18 (1-2): 227-241.

8. HAMMER Ø., HARPER D.A.T., RYAN P.D. 2001. PAST: Paleontological Statistics software package for education and data analysis. Paleontologia Electronica 4(1): ss. 9.

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9. HONNAY O., BOSSUYT B., VERHEYEN K., BUTAYE J., JACQUEMYN H. 2002. Ecological perspectives for the restoration of plant communities in European temperate forests. Biodiv. and Conserv. 11: 213-242.

10. HONNAY O., HERMY M., COPPIN P. 1999. Impact of habitat quality on forest plant species colonization. Forest Ecol. Manag. 115: 157-170.

11. JACQUEMYN H., BRYS R. 2008. Effects of stand age on the demography of a temperate forest herb in post-agricultural forests. Ecology 89: 3480-3489.

12. JAKUBOWSKA-GABARA J. 1989. Leśne zbiorowiska zastępcze. Wiad. Bot. 33(1): 9-18. 13. ŁASKA G. 1997. Kształtowanie się leśnych zbiorowisk zastępczych na obszarach

użytkowanych rolniczo. Przegl. Przyr. 8 (1-2): 77-86. 14. MAAREL, VAN DER, E. 1979. “Transformation of cover-abundance values in

phytosociology and its effects on community similarity”. Vegetatio 39: 97-114. 15. MATHER A. (red.) 1993. Afforestation. Policies, planning and progres. Belhaven Press,

London. 16. MATUSZKIEWICZ J.M. 2005. Zespoły leśne Polski. Wyd. Nauk. PWN, Warszawa, ss.

358. 17. MATUSZKIEWICZ J.M., KOWALSKA A., KOZŁOWSKA A., ROO-ZIELIŃSKA E., SOLON J.

2013a. Differences in plant-species composition, richness and community structure in ancient and post-agricultural pine forests in central Poland. Forest Ecology and Management 310: 567–576.

18. MATUSZKIEWICZ J.M., KOWALSKA A., SOLON J., DEGÓRSKI M., KOZŁOWSKA A., ROO-ZIELIŃSKA E., ZAWISKA I., WOLSKI J. 2013b. Long-term evolution models of post-agricultural forests. Prace Geograficzne 240, ss.318.

19. MATUSZKIEWICZ J.M., SOLON J., KOWALSKA A. 2015. Rekolonizacja borówki czernicy w borach sosnowych i mieszanych na gruntach porolnych. Studia i Materiały Centrum Edukacji Przyrodniczo-Leśnej 42(1): 220-235.

20. MATUSZKIEWICZ W. 2008. Przewodnik do oznaczania zbiorowisk roślinnych Polski. Wyd. Naukowe PWN, Warszawa, ss. 537.

21. MIREK Z., PIEKOŚ-MIRKOWA H., ZAJĄC A, ZAJĄC M. 2002. Flowering plants and pteridophytes of Poland – a checklist. Krytyczna lista roślin naczyniowych Polski. Biodiversity of Poland. Vol. 1, W. Szafer Institute of Botany, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kraków, ss. 442.

22. OCHYRA R., BEDNAREK-OCHYRA H. ŻARNOWIEC J. 2003. Census Catalogue of polish mosses. Katalog mchów Polski Series: Biodiversity of Poland, Vol. 3. W. Szafer Institute of Botany, Polish Academy of Science, ss. 372.

23. ORCZEWSKA A. 2007. Znaczenie starych lasów w procesie renaturalizacji runa leśnego w lasach wtórnych pochodzenia porolnego. Studia i Materiały Centrum Edukacji Przyrodniczo-Leśnej 9 (2/3): 356-369.

24. ORCZEWSKA A. 2009. Age and origin of forests in south-western Poland and their importance for ecological studies in man-dominated landscapes. Landscape Res. 34: 599-617.

25. ORCZEWSKA A. FERENS M. 2011. Migration of herb layer species into the poorest post-agricultural pine woods adjacent to ancient pine forests. Pol. J. Ecol. 59 (1): 75-85.

26. SMYKAŁA J. 1990. Historia, rozmiar i rozmieszczenie zalesień gruntów porolnych w Polsce w latach 1945-1987. Sylwan 134(3-12): 1-7.

27. SZWAGRZYK J. 1997. Znaczenie gruntów porolnych dla ochrony przyrody: analiza doświadczeń i wnioski na przyszłość. Przegl. Przyr. 8 (1-2): 33-42.

28. SZWAGRZYK J. 2004. Sukcesja leśna na gruntach porolnych; stan obecny, prognozy i wątpliwości. Sylwan 148 (4): 53-59.

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29. TÜXEN R., ELLENBERG H. 1937. Der systematische und der ökologische Gruppenwert. Ein Beitrag zur Begriffsbildung und Methodik der Pflanzensoziologie. Mitt. Florist.-Soziol. Arbeitsgem 3: 171-184.

30. VERHEYEN K., BOSSUYT B., HONNAY O., HERMY M. 2003. A comparison between the herbaceous plant community structure of ancient and recent forests for two contrasting forest types. Basic. Appl. Ecol. 4: 537-546.

31. WOZIWODA B., AMBROŻKIEWICZ K. 2011. Diversity of forest and shrub communities as a result of site history of extensive and intensive forest management (Glinno Ługi case study). Acta Univ. Lodz., Folia Biologica et Oecologica 7: 149-162.

32. WOZIWODA B., PARZYCH A., KOPEĆ D. 2014. Species diversity, biomass accumulation and carbon sequestration in the understorey of post-agricultural Scots pine forests. Silva Fennica 48 (4).

33. ZIELONY R., KLICZKOWSKA A. 2012: Regionalizacja przyrodniczo-leśna Polski 2010. Centrum Iinformacyjne Lasaów Państwowych, Warszawa, ss. 356.

Streszczenie: Roślinność borów sosnowych na gruntach porolnych i leśnych na terenie

nadleśnictwa Chojnów. Prezentowana praca stanowi część szerszych badań dotyczących struktury i właściwości drewna pni sosen pochodzących z drzewostanów rosnących na gruntach porolnych i w starych lasach na siedliskach boru świeżego i boru mieszanego świeżego. Celem niniejszych badań jest przedstawienie diagnozy fitosocjologicznej oraz opisanie zróżnicowania roślinności na 4 powierzchniach badawczych, z których pobrano drzewa i próbki drewna do badań anatomicznych i fizycznych. Łącznie wykonano 20 zdjęć fitosocjologicznych po 5 dla każdej z powierzchni badawczych zlokalizowanych na terenie Nadleśnictwa Chojnów. Powierzchnie borowe charakteryzują się wyraźnie większym pokrywaniem warstwy mszystej, natomiast siedlisko boru mieszanego wyróżnia się wykształceniem się dwupiętrowego drzewostanu. W borze mieszanym na gruncie porolnym jest znacznie obficiej rozwinięta warstwa drugiego piętra drzewostanu dębowego, natomiast bardzo słabo jest tu rozwinięta pod względem pokrycia warstwa runa. Na siedlisku boru świeżego zbiorowiska roślinne stanowią kadłubową postać przejściową pomiędzy zespołami suboceanicznego boru świeżego Leucobryo-Pinetum i kontynentalnego boru świeżego Peucedano-Pinetum. Postacie reprezentujące różne ze względu na historię użytkowania typy gruntów są na tym siedlisku słabo zróżnicowane. Na siedlisku boru mieszanego świeżego występuje zespół kontynentalnego boru mieszanego Querco roboris-Pinetum. Zespół jest wyraźnie zróżnicowany na postać typową na gruncie leśnym i postać kadłubową na gruncie porolnym, wyróżniającą się głównie małą liczbą gatunków starych lasów. Zespół zniekształcony jest także przez obecność nielicznych, ale istotnych antropofitów, w tym kilku ekspansywnych neofitów. Research carried out as a part of scientific grant N N309 108640 "Changes in the structure

and properties of wood of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) on former farmland, as a reaction to

environmental stress", financed by the Polish National Science Centre.

Corresponding author: Wojciech Ciurzycki Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW 159 Nowoursynowska St. 02-776 Warsaw, Poland email: [email protected]

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Schutzbehandlung des Holzes EWA DOBROWOLSKA1, PETER NIEMZ2

1) Department of Wood Science and Wood Preservation, Faculty of Wood Technology, Warsaw University of Life Sciences - SGGW, 159 Nowoursynowska St., 02-776 Warsaw 2) ETH Zurich, Institute for Building Materials, Wood Physics Abstract: Schutzbehandlung des Holzes. Im nachfolgenden Artikel wurde die Methoden der Schutzbehandlung des Holzes der bekannten Autoren von sechzehnten bis zum neunzehnten Jahrhundert dargestellt. Damals wurde festgestellt, dass die Verfahren zur Holzkonservierung in einigen Gruppen eingeteilt werden kann, in denen die unterschiedlichen Methoden zur Erkennung des Hauschwammes beschrieben wurden. Vor allem wurden die Austrocknungsmittel, Beizmittel und Isoliermittel des Tannenholzes und Anwendungsmethoden des Holzschutzes bestimmen. In allen dargestellten Werken wurde festgestellt, dass der wichtigste Faktor, um die Entwicklung des Hausschwammes zu verhindern, ist die Belüftung der Wohnräume. Die erwähnten Beschreibungen zeigen, dass die Grundsätze des Holzschutzes nicht im Laufe der Jahrhunderte geändert wurden. Schlüsselwörter: Schutz, Holz, Fußboden, Holzkonservierung

Im Jahre 1950 schreibt Dr. Peters im Kapitel „Schutzbehandlung des Holzes“ im

Handbuch der Holzkonservierung, das von herausgegeben von Prof. Dr. Johannes Liese im Springer- Verlag im Jahr 1950. herausgegeben wurde folgendes:

Die verwendeten und im Folgenden zu behandelten Verfahren sollen der Übersichtlichkeit halber in vier Gruppen eingeteilt werden schreibt Dr. Peters im Kapitel „Schutzbehandlung des Holzes“ im Handbuch der Holzkonservierung, herausgegeben von Prof. Dr. Johannes Liese im Springer - Verlag im Jahr 1950.

1. Auslaugung des Holzes durch Wasser oder Wasserdampf: a) Auslaugung durch Wasser, b) Auslaugung durch Wasserdampf (Dämpfen des Holzes).

2. Erzeugung zumeist ungiftiger Schutzschichten auf der Holzoberfläche, die das Holz von der Außenluft bzw. vom umgebenden Erdböden abschließen und so den Zutritt von Feuchtigkeit sowie Keimen der Holzerstörer verhindern sollen:

a) Das Ankohlen des Holzes, b) Umhüllung des Holzes durch luft- und wasserdichte Schutzschichten.

3. Einführung von Schutzstoffen in die durchtränkt baren Teile des Holzes: a) Anstriche mit giftig wirkenden Stoffen (Oberflächenschutz), b) Einlagerung von Giftstoffen n Bohrlöchern oder Impfschutzen des Holzes, c) Eintauch- und Einlagerungsverfahren, d) Das Saftverdrängungsverfahren, e) Die Tränkung unter Anwendung von Vakuum und Druck.

4. Sonstige Tränkverfahren.

Im Jahre 1809 schreibt Adolph Siemsen folgendes: Alle mir bekannt gewordenen Mittel zur Vertilgung des bereits gegenwärtigen Hauschwammes und Mauersalzes lassen sich füglich nach unter folgenden drey Klassen bringen:

I. Austrocknungsmittel: a) des Fußbodens, b) der Wände im Erdgeschoß.

II. Beizmittel des Tannenholzes,

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III. Isoliermittel des Tannenholzes.

Ad I Austrocknungsmittel des Fußbodens. Um dem vom Hauschwamm bereits angesteckten Fußboden auf immer gegen die

große Übel zu sichern, empfehlt man folgende Mittel: 1. Man reinige die alte Grundlage des Fußbodens der Wohnzimmer von dem

vorhandenen Schutt, und wähle dafür oder anstatt der feuchten Grunderde, vielmehr trocknen Sand und Eisen-Hammerschlag. CUNY in der Schule der Erfahrung Berlin 1801. Thl.III. S. 203. und S.205. Die Schule der Erfahrung für Alle, welchen Zufriedenheit, Leben und Gesundheit etwas werth sind; warnende Thatsachen zur Verhütung alltäglicher Unglücksfälle: Berlin; Maurer; 1803 T. 3 der zum Volks- und Jugendbuche umgearb. 2. Ausg. oder der 1. Ausg. T. 4 WAGENER, SAMUEL CHRISTOPH 1801 Die Schule der Erfahrung für Alle, welchen Zufriedenheit, Leben und Gesundheit etwas werth sind. Berlin; v. WEHRS im Allg Anzeiger der Deutschen v. J. 1806. N. 290.

Der Sand ist aber nur so lange trocken, als die ihn umschließenden Körper nicht feucht gewordem sind, er leidet deshalb sehr bald von jeder unter dem Fußboden andringenden Flüssigkeit. Hammerschlag und Sand werden von den Schleichenden Anheftungs-Fasern des Hauschwammes sehr leicht zur Seite geschoben, setzen also dem nachtheiligen Wuchern desselben nicht das geringste Hinderniß in den Weg.

2. Man bringe ein Gemenge von trocknen Lehm, Kohlengestübe und gröblich zerstoßenen Ziegelmehl in die Füllungen des Fußbodens. Physikalisch-ökonomische Bibliothek worinn von den neuesten Büchern, welche die Naturgeschichte, Naturlehre und die Land- und Stadtwirthschaft betreffen, zuverlässige und vollständige Nachrichten ertheilet werden.von Johann Beckmann. Göttingen: im Verlag der Wittwe Vandenhoeck, 1770-1806. Seite 114. Magazin aller neuen Erfindungen, Entdeckungen und Verbesserungen für Fabrikanten, Manufakturisten, Künstler, Handwerker und Oekonomen; 6. [1806], 6; Leipzig: 1806, Baumgärtner; Seite 331.

Der trockne feste Lehm-Estrich ist allerdings dem Sande weit vorzuziehn, insonderheit wenn er mit Ochsenblut begossen und wenn dabey zugleich für eine genau anschließende Dielen-Belegung gesorgt wird. Und die Holzkohle hat die vortreffliche Eigenschaft andere Körper vor Fäulniß zu schützen, sie zeigt sich auch nicht weniger als eine Substanz, die nur sehr schwer zersetzt werden kann. Nach Plinius Versicherung ließ schon Theodor aus Samos eine Lage Kohlen auf den Fußboden des Tempels zu Ephesus legen, um der Feuchtigkeit desselben unschädlich zu machen. Die Alten nahmen auch schon zerstoßene gebrannte Ziegel zu einer Schicht (Nucleus) ihres gewöhnlichen Estrichs im Erdgeschoß ihrer Gebäude, um den Fußboden recht trocken zu erhalten. C. PLINII SECUNDI Naturalis historiae libri XXXVII Plinius Secundus, Gaius 23-79; Sillig, Julius 1801-1855 Lipsiae: Teubner.

3. Man nehme Eichenholz zur Unterlage, fülle die Felder mit trocknen Mauersteinen aus, und nagele die Dielenbretter darüber. Oekonomisches Portefeuille zur Ausbreitung nützlicher Kenntnisse und Erfahrungen aus allen Theilen der Oekonomie. Lübeck, 1786 B. I. S. 264. B. III. S. 78.

Dieser zweckmäßiger Vorschlag ward schon im Jahr 1659 zu Stade wider den Hausschwamm befolgt, und man fand ein sonst sehr feuchtes Zimmer nach 130 Jahren, noch völlig trocken. Die Mauersteine müssen jedoch nicht in Sand gelegt, noch die Fugen mit gewöhlichem Kalkmörtel ausgefüllt werden, sonder es ist rathsan, solche mit dünnem Cemente auszugießen oder auch durch Seifensieder- Kalk zu verbinden. Wählt man Tannenholz zum Lager, so muß man nothwendig auf Isolirmittel desselben bedacht nehmen, ingleichen nur sehr kienhaltige Bretter zu Dielen aussuchen. Ein von mir auf diese Art verbessertes Zimmer, zeigt jetzt, nach zehn Jahren, nicht die mindeste Spur vom Hauschwamm mehr. Die zur Erreichung dieses Zwecks von Manger in seier Bauwissenschaft v. J. 1785. empfohlenen gewölbten Keller sind zu kostbar, und schützen ohne Luftzug nicht gegen den Hausschwamm. Man vergleiche de

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belehrenden Beispiele in Königs Schrift über den Salpeterfraß und laufenden Schwamm. Tübingen 1788. S. 49. KÖNIG, Friedrich Wilhelm, 1788: Technologischer Beitrag zur Kenntnis des Salpeterfrases an dem Gemäuer und laufenden Schwammes an dem Holzwerk der Gebäude .Tübingen: Cotta.

4. Man bringe Luftzüge im Fußboden an, oder lasse den ganzen Raum unter dem Fußboden unausgefüllt, und durchschneide ihn mit gemauerten Kanälen. DETHARDING in der Monathsschrift von und für Meklenburg v.J. 1793. S. 331 Magazin aller neuen Erfindungen. Leipzig B. VI. St. 6. S. 331 LANGGUTH im Allg. Anzeiger der Deutschen v.J. 1808. N. 184. col. 3031

Diese Luftzüge werden von Gilly und Bode als sehr nützlich empfohlen, ersterer hat auch besondere Zeichnungen davon geliefert. Der Alten legten nach Virtus zur Ableitung der feuchten Dünnstem, schon kleine Kanäle unter dem Fußboden ihrer Zimmer an, deren Oeffungen ins Freie ausgingen. Bey dieser etwas kostbaren Einrichtung wird jedoch, um nicht getäuscht zu werden, voraus gesetzt, daß der Baugrund nicht zu dumpfig, und die Luftzüge vom Winde durchstrichen werden können. Ein merkwürdiges Beispiel vom Gegentheil erzählt Herr Dr. Detharding, verdientes Ehrenmittglied der Meklb. Naturforsch. Gesellschaft, bey Gelegenheit der Anzeige der fürchterlichen Zerstörungen des Hauschwammes im Predigerhause zu Alten Catrin unweit Rostock. “Als nämlich das Haus soweit massiv aufgeführt und alles Holzwerk herausgeschafft worden war, belegte man die Fußböden aufs Neue mit schwedischen Tannebrettern. Man grub die Erde zwey Fuß tief aus, mauerte für die Lagerhölzer Pfeiler von Ziegelsteinen, worauf sie ruhen sollten, und schrob die Bretter fest, um im Nothfall eins Revision halten zu können. Man ließ auch m dem Mauerwerke nach außen Luftlöcher, um der atmosphärischen Luft freien Durchgang zu verschaffen, und glaubte auf diese Art den Schwamm vertilgt, und seinen ferner Anwuchs vorgebeugt zu haben. Allein diese Hoffnung. Womit man sich schmeichelte, dauerte nicht lange. Denn kaum war ein Jahr verflossen, so zeigte sich der Schwamm nicht allein an Stellen, wo man ihn sonst nicht bemerkt hatte, sondern auch die Fußböden, wo man es sich am wenigsten vermuthen war, hoben sich jetzt mehr als sonst, ja sie waren an einigen Stellen so mürbe, daß man besorgen mußte, durchzufallen. Beim Aufnehmen einiger Bretter, zeigte sich der Schwamm so fürchterlich, als man ihn vorher nicht bemerkte. Er hatte nämlich seinen Sitz nicht allein im Holze sondern überzog auch alles Mauerwerk und alle Steine, die ihm vorgekommen waren. Der hervorbrechende Gestank war unbeschreiblich”

b) Austrocknungsmittel der Wände im Erdgeschoß 1. Man reinige die innern Wände von Kalk und Lehm, und bestreiche sie mit Theer

oder mit Oelfarbe. BECKMANN`S Phys. Oekonomisch. Bibliothek. B. VI. S. 500 Die Schule der Erfahrung . Berlin 1801. Th.III. S. 203

Die Alten überstrichen schon die Wände, um sie vor Näse zu sichern, mit Erdpech, und um die salzige Feuchtigkeit abzuhalten, trugen sie, nach Plinius, einen Scherbenmörtel darauf. Der Firniß- Ueberzug ist allerdings für die saltzhaltigen Wände zu empfehlen, wenn sie nur noch so trocken sind ihn anzunehmen; jedoch muß man dann die Panehle von Tannenholz ganz weglassen oder sie mit eichnen verwechseln, weil die tannenen von der anbringenden salinischen Feuchtigkeit, ihrer Harzlösenden Eigenschaft wegen, auch ohne den Hausschwamm, sehr bald zu stocken pflegen. Der Löflerische Firniß, den man um die Mauerziegel von Nässe zu bewahren, empfohlen hat, besteht aus Leinöl mit etwas Bleiglätte (Silberglätte) Mennig, Pech und Ziegelmehl.

2. Man reinige die schadhafte Mauer von dem Kalkbewurf, besprütze sie mit Wasser und bessere sie darauf mit harten Steinen und mit einem Mörtel aus Gyps und zerstoßenen Scherben wieder aus. LUTHER VON RODA. 1772. Abhandlung vom Salpeterfraß. Altenburg, 4. S. 27.

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KIRSCHBAUM, JOHANN GOTTLOB 1796: Erprobte Witterungs- und Bauernregeln, wie auch bewährte Hausmittel, Unterricht vom Aberglauben, und sechsjährigen Kalender, nebst Erklärung desselben, Vorzüglich für Landleute und den gemeinen Mann herausgegeben von Johann Gottlob Kirschbaum; Erster Theil:[...] (1796) Leipzig; Göthe

Leider lehrt die tägliche Erfahrung, daß die bloße Hinwegschaffung des Kalbewurfs, wenn das Mauersalz die Steine schon durchdrungen hat, ganz und gar Nichts nutzt. Der erneuerte Anwurf ist gewiß bey feuchtem Baugrunde nach Jahres Frist, wozu man in Rostock die Pfingsten-Zeit bestimmt hat, wieder ebenso schadhaft, als der vorige nur seyn konnte. Einige rathen Holzkohlen in dwen Gyps zu drucken, welche aber, in diesem Fall, dem Mörtel beständig Feuchtigkeit aus der Atmosphere zuführen, wodurch seine Bindkraft sehr leiden muß. Mit dem Ausbrechen der Steine muß man durchaus so weit gehen, als es die schadhafte Mauer nur irgend zulassen will.

3. Man lasse eine Schicht trockener, auf die hohe Seite gestellter Mauersteine gegen die feuchte Wand aufführen, und die Fugen genau mit Kalk verstreichen. Dieß beliebte Mittel gehört aber auch nur zu den Palliativ-Curen, denn die neue Steinschicht wird besonders duch Beihülfe des feuchten Locals, nach einiger Zeit nicht weniger mit dem Mauerfraß befallen seyn, weil man der Erzeugung des Mauersalzes dadurch, bey der schlechten Beschaffenheit unserer Ziegelsteine, eben kein großes Hinderniß in den Weg gelegt hat.

4. Man bringe den Untergrund aus den angesteckten Zimmern heraus, und suche dem Fundamente durch nahe gebrachtes Flammenfeuer, oder durch einen freien Luftzug auf mehrere Wochen, den höchsten Grad von Trockniß zu verschaffen. WAGENER SAMUEL CHRISTOPH 1801: Die Schule der Erfahrung für Alle, welchen Zufriedenheit, Leben und Gesundheit etwas werth sind. Berlin: Maurer; WAGENER SAMUEL CHRISTOPH 1801: Die Schule der Erfahrung für Alle, welchen Zufriedenheit, Leben und Gesundheit etwas werth sind: Warnende Thatsachen zur Verhütung alltäglicher Unglücksfälle; Th. II S. 204. Berlin: Maurer.

Auf diese angepriesene Art, hat man freilich schon manches Gebäude verbessern gesucht; wenn man aber dabey auf die Eigenthümlichkeit des Baugrundes und auf die Beschaffenheit der Fundamentsteine nicht besondere Rücksicht nehmen will, so kann auch der Erfolg davon jederzeit nur relativ und sehr unsicher seyn. Es kommen auch Felsenstücken vor, die stets feucht, und fast beständig mit einem Salzbeschlag bedeckt sind. Es gibt z. B. nach Lampadius, zu Freiberg in den aus Gneis erbauten Häusern einzelne sehr leicht feucht werdende Stellen. Die Wand mag bekalkt seyn, wie sie will, der Stein zieht Wasser bis zum Niederlaufen an der Wand an. Sehr wahrscheinlich ist eine Sorte leicht verwitternden Gneiß, aus dessen verwittertem Feldspath das Kali frey geworden ist.

Ad II Beizmittel des Tannenholzes Vor etwa achtzig Jahren erfand der Schwedische Leibarzt Hiarne einen sogenannten Holzbalsam, womit er Bretter und Holz auf hundert Jahre vor Fäulnß sichern wollte, und er erhielt auch ein besonderes Privilegium von seinem Könige. Dessen Holzbalsam von unbekannter Michung, empfahl er auch zum Einbalsamiren der Leichen. Endlich machte der patriotische Apotheker Salberg in Schweden dies Arcanum im Jahr 1742 unter dem eigentlichen Namen Vitriolwasser bekannt, und lobte es als ein bewährtes Mittel wider den Hauschwamm. Im Jahr 1766 ward eben dieser Flüssige Vitriol wiederum in Hamburg unter der perfecten Benennung, Holzbalsam gegen die Hausschwämme und wider die Fäulnß, bestens ausgepriesen. Das Fäßchen vom groben Holzbalsam zu 25 Pfund kostete zehn Mark Lübisch, und das Fäßchen vom feinen Balsam zu sechs Pfund, ward mit vier Mark Lübisch bezahlt. Verschiedene Schriftssteller ziehen den flüsigen Kupfervitriol noch dem Eisenvitriol zur Schwammbeize vor, und in den neuesten Zeiten haben noch mehrere gewinnsüchtge

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Baukünstler wieder versucht, dieß’ wohlfeile Salzwasser den Leichtgläubigen Bauherren als ein probates Arkanum, ohne alle Einschränkung, in öffentlichen Blätterm sehr theuer anzubieten. Einige Kunstverständige empfehlen hiezu auch das Besprengen mit flüssigem Kochsalz, und das öfftere Reiben des ungesunden Holzes mit Büchenasche. Andere können hingegen die Wirkungen der stinkenden Häringslake, des ungelöschten Kalks und des faulenden Urins nicht genug loben. URBANI HIERNE: Acta et tentamina chymica : in regio laboratorio Stockholmiensi, elaborata et demonstrata, in decades redacta atque divisa una cum praemissa parasceve ; seu praevia manuductione ad experimenta rite perficienda (1712); URBANI HIERNE: Actorum chemicorum Holmiensium ...; tomus primus: [...] (1753) Hiärne, Urbanus; Wallerius, Joh. Gotschalk Stockholmiae : Salvius URBANI HIERNE: Actorum chemicorum Holmiensium tomus ...; T. 2: Tentaminum chemicorum (1753) Hiärne, Urbanus; Wallerius, Joh. Gotschalk Stockholmiae: Salvius URBANI HIERNE: Acta et tentamina chymica in regio laboratorio Stockholmiensi elaborata et demonstrata (1712) HIÄRNE, URBAN; Holmiae: Werner ROHR V. J. B.1726: Compendieuse Hausshaltungs-Bibliotheck, darinnen nicht allein die neuesten und besten Autores …recensiret und beurtheilet, sondern auch überall d. Autoris eigene Meditationes ... eingemischet werden. Leipzig, 2. u. verm. Aufl. Kungliga svenska vetenskapsakademien (Stockholm) Der Königl. Schwedischen Akademie der Wissenschaften neue Abhandlungen aus der Naturlehre, Haushaltungskunst und Mechanik. Leipzig: Heinsius, 1739-1790 GEORG HEINRICH ZINKENS Allgemeines Oeconomisches Lexicon: Darinn nicht allein Die Erklärung aller zu einer vollständigen Landwirthschaft, zum Acker- Holz- Wein- und Gartenbau, Wiesewachs, Fischerey, Jägerey, Bierbrauerey, Branntweinbrennerey, Viehzucht gehörigen Dinge; ingleichen was bey Anlegung wirthschaftlicher Gebäude, oder sonst bey täglichen Verrichtungen im Hause, Küche und Keller vorkommt, zu finden ist; sondern auch Die Eigenschaften, Wartung und Nutzen der Pflanzen und Bäume, Thiere, Metalle, Steine, Baumaterialien [et]c. beschrieben werden; Nebst einem Anhange eines Land- und Hauswirthschaftskalenders; Alles aufs sorgfältigste zusammen getragen; in zween Theilen 5., mit vielen neuen Artikeln verm. und durchgängig verb. Ausg./von Johann Jakob Volkmann. 1780. ZINCKE GEORG HEINRICH, LEICH, CHRISTIAN ANDREAS, 1800: Allgemeines oeconomisches Lexicon: darin nicht allein die Erklärung aller zu einer vollständigen Landwirthschaft, zum Acker-, Holz-, Wein- und Gartenbau, Wiesewachs, Fischerey, Jägerey, Stärkenfabrik, Bierbrauerey, Branntweinbrennerey, Viehzucht gehörigen Dinge und was bey Anlegung wirthschaftlicher Gebäude, oder sonst bey täglichen Verrichtungen im Hause, Kueche und Keller vorkommt, zu finden ist, sondern auch die Eigenschaften, Wartung und Nutzen der Pflanzen und Baeume, Thiere, Metalle, Steine, Baumaterialien ec. beschrieben werden; nebst einem Anhange eines Land- und Hauswirthschafskalenders; in zwey Theilen; 1 (1800) Leipzig;Gleditsch. FUNKE; Naturgeschichte und Technologie: Braunschweig 1802; B. I. S. 597. FUNKE CARL PHILIPP 1802: Naturgeschichte und Technologie für Lehrer in Schulen und für Liebhaber dieser Wissenschaften: Zur allgemeinen Schulencyclopädie gehörig; Braunschweig; Schulbuchhandlung Bd. 2; S. 597. Hannöversches Magazin v. J, 1787. S. 33; Col. 527. SCHADELOOK in d. Mekl. Monatsschrift. v. J. 1793 S. 277. FRIEDRICH Ebendaselbst - St. XI. S. 332.

Der Gebrauch der vitriolischen Holzbeize ist zwar beim feuchten Baugrunde nicht anzurathen, bey einer trocknen Baustelle ist er ebenso angelegentlich, als das Einsalzen des Fleisches für unsere Haushaltungen zu empfehlen. Durch das Einböckeln sucht man nämlich die zur Fäulniß geneigten Thele aufzulösen, und die festen Fleischfasern näher zu bringen, weshalb das Böckelfleisch auch leichter ist, als vorher. Durch die mit Metalloxyd gemischte schwefelsaure Beize vertilgt man nicht weniger die zur Fäulnß geneigten Holzfasern, erstickt die etwa gegenwärtigen Schwammpilz-Keime, und füllt zugleich die kleinen Höhlungen im gebeitzten Holze mit oxydirten Eisen- oder Kupfertheilchen aus, so daß der Harzlösende, fressende Saft des sich etwa nähernden Hausschwammes, als eine schwächere Beize, dem Tannenholze nicht mehr schädlich werden kann.

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Ad III Isoliermittel des Tannenholzes Einige Baumeister haben geglaubt den Hausschwamm von den Wohngebäuden

abzuhalten, wenn sie Holz und Kalk so viel als möglich zu trennen suchten, weil die Erfahrung zeige, wie auch Gully behauptet, daß das Holz vom Kalke angesteckt werde. Das Holz ist nämlich, nach ihrer Behauptung, resinös und mit einigen salinschen Theilen gemischt, der Kalk aber ist von alkalischer Natur. (Nach Kirwan geben tausend Pfund Tannenasche 210 Pfund Salz, welches von nicht anders, als im gelösten Zustande in den lebenden Tannenbaun dringen konnte )(Kirwan, Richard 1800: Additional observations on the proportion of real acid in the three antient known mineral acids and on the ingredients in various neutral salts and other compounds. Dublin). Kommt der Kalk dem Holz nun zu nahe, so saugt er das Resinöse und Salinsche an sich, oder erzeugt, durch die von Zeit zu Zeit andringende Feuchtigkeit, Fäulniß und Zerstörung. In dem alten Rom brachte man schon Spreu zwischen den Kalk und das Holzwerk, damit die Ausdunstung des Kalks, wie man vorgab, dem Holze nicht schädlich werden mögte. Neuere empfehlen für die Lagerhölzer im Fußboden einen Anstrich von Theer, von Leinöl auch von Thran mit verschiedenen ganz überflüssigen Ingredienzen versetzt. Auch andere glauben das Tannenholz durch Armaturen von Eisenblech und Birkenrinde zu sichern. Einige empfehlen das Holz mit Thon, der mit Flachs oder mit zerhaktem Heu gemengt ist, zu überziehen, und noch Andere rathen eine an den äussern Flächen des Holzes anfangende Verkohlung zu beschaffen. Diese Kohlenrinde ist ihrer Unzerstörbarkeit wegen mit Recht allen andern weit vorzuziehn, denn die beliebte Armaturen geben den zarten Anheftungs-Fasern des Hauschwammes nicht selten Spielraum genug, sich den Panehlen sehr nachtheilig zu nähern. Die Kohle darf bekanntlich sehr lange der Luft angesetzt weden, kann auch in die Erde verscharrt seyn, ohne daß sie zerstört wird. Man verkohlt daher auch hölzerne Pfähle, welche man in dier Erde stößt, auf ihrer Oberfläche, um sie dadurch unzerstörbarer zu machen; auch verkohlt man jetzt in Frankreich, nach Berthollet’s Vorschrift, die ganze innere Fläche der hölzernen Gefäße, um Wein oder Wasser darin auf lange Zeit, vor dem verderben zu schützen. Es sind ungefähr 50 Jahre, als eine Anzahl zugespitzter Pfähle in der Themse an demselben Orte entdeckt ward, von welchem Tacitus anführt, daß die Britten daselbst eine große Anzahl solcher Pfähle einrammelten, um den Julius Cäsar zu verhindern, daß er mit seiner Armee nicht über diese Furt ginge.Sie waren alle bis zu einer beträchtlichen Tiefe verkohlt, und hatten ihre Gestalt völlig behalten. In ihrem Innern waren sie so fest, daß eine große Menge Messerschalen aus ihnen verfertigt und als Alterthümer zu einen hohen Preise verkauft ward. KLAPROTH MARTIN HEINRICH 1808: Wolff, Friedrich 1808: Chemisches Wörterbuch. Berlin; Vossische Buchhandlung Berlin

Der zu diesem Zwecke empfohlne Theeranstrich kann jedoch für Häuser von Fachwerk bey Feuersbrünstem sehr gefährlich werden. Vitruv äußert schon den Wunsch, daß Wohngebäude von Fachwerk gar nicht erfunden seyn mögten, weil selbiges bey allen Vortheilen, den es dadurch gewähre, daß es in kurzer Zeit aufgebaut werde, dennoch einer Stadt vielen Nachtheil bringen könne, da es leicht vom Feuer ergriffen werde, und solches leicht weiter verbreite.

Um unsere hölzernen Häuser vor dem Hausschwamm, und auch zugleich vor Feuersgefahr zu sichern, verdient der wohlfeile saure Lehmbeschlag, welchen Dieck in seiner lehrreichen Schrift: Dieck Friedrich Wilhelm 1796:Unterricht für den Bürger und Landmann wie Landhäuser und Strohdächer auf eine leichte und wohlfeile Art feuersicher gemacht, und Feuersbrünste schnell und am zuverlässigsten gelöscht werden können, nebst einer Einleitung über die Natur und Wirkung des Feuers. Hamburg: Bachmann und Gundermann. Zu bereiten vorschreibt, die beste Empfehlung. Man rührt deshalb gut geschlemmten kalkfreien Lehm mit zerlassenem Vitriol zu einem Teige an, mengt Kuhhaare oder auch Spreu darunter, und macht nach der mehr oder wenigern Konsistenz des Lehmbreies davon drey Sorten; welche nach ihrer Anwendung von dem Erfinder Vorbereitungslehm, Deckenlehm und Wandlehm genannt

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werden. Den berüchtigten Mahonschen Brandabhaltenden Holzüberzug (Krünitz Oeconomische

Encyklopedie; Berlin 1781, Th XXIV. S. 855) der aus einem Theile ungelöschten Kalk, zwey Theilen Sand und drey Theilen zerkacktem Heu oder Stroh besteht, darf ich seiner Geneigtheit zur Aufnahme des Mauersalzes wegen nicht empfehlen.

Über das Thema schreibt Krünitz, Oeconomische Encyklopedie. Berlin 1781. Th.- XXIV. S. 855 ff folgendes: Da aber doch endlich auch das beste Holz verweset, und zernichtet wird, hat man durch allerley Künste diesen Untergang zu verhindern, auch vornehmlich durch allerley Anstriche und Ueberzüge das Holz unverbrennlich, wenigstens feuerfest, zu machen, und es also, daß es nicht so leicht Feuer fängt, zuzurichten gesucht. Man hat sogar hölzerne Töpfe, Ofenaufsätze und dergleichen Sachen verfertigen wollen, welche von dem Feuer nicht beschädiget werden könnten, und hierzu diesen Feuerkitt empfohlen. Aus gutem Tischlerleim, worein etwas gestoßene Fischgräthen gerühret worden, machet man ein warmes Leimwasser, löset darin so viel Alaun auf, als möglich, läßt dieses mit einander kochen, und rühret darunter so viel fein geriebenen Hammerschlag und Ziegelmehl, daß es ein dicker Teig werde. Mit diesem Teige oder Kitte bestreicht man das Holz 1, 2 bis 3 Messerrücken dick. Er wird je länger je mehr durch das Feuer gehärtet. Man ist auch schon längstens in Schweden darauf bedacht gewesen, das Holz durch eine Beitze aus Salz, Vitriol und Alaun einiger Maßen feuerfester zu machen. Andere haben das Holz mit Kalk, welcher mit Vitriol vermischt ist, bestrichen. Diese Brandvorschläge hat Hr. D. Glaser sorgfältig untersucht; und da er solche als unzulänglich gefunden, einen andern dergleichen Anstrich erdacht, und damit verschiedene Proben angestellt, welche aber nicht von Allen für richtig und gültig angenommen worden sind. Dieser brandabhaltende Holz Anstrich besteht aus 3 Theilen geschlämmten Lehm, 1 Th. geschlämmten Thon, und 1 Th. Mehlkleister. Von Hrn. Herzbergs Ueberzug der Bretdächer, um sie vor Feuer sicher zu stellen, und den deshalb in Breslau angestellten Versuchen, In England hat Lord Mahon einen brandabhaltenden Holzüberzug oder Mörtel erfunden, womit man ein Haus in= und auswendig überziehen soll. Man nimmt einen Theil ungelöschten Kalk, 2 Theile Sand, und 3 Th. ungefähr einen Zoll lang gehacktes Heu oder Stroh. (Pferdehaar wäre noch besser, wenn es nicht zu theuer käme.) Dieses alles mischet man wohl unter einander, daß es gleichsam ein Mörtel wird. Hierauf zieht man von einem Balken zum andern Latten, damit der Mörtel oder Kitt, den man dazwischen thut, einen Halt habe, und bewirft die Wand sorgfältig, damit keine Lücken bleiben. Man läßt alles wohl austrocknen. In dem Fußboden und Täfelwerke verfährt man auf gleiche Art. Hölzerne Wände, Verschläge etc. kann man auf gleiche Art übertünchen. Jedoch muß zweyerley hierbey beobachtet werden:

1) der Mörtel oder Kitt muß perpendikulär nach der Lage der Dielen aufgetragen werden, 2) es müssen beyde Seiten, von innen und außen, damit überzogen werden.

Bey den Treppen tünchet man doppelt; zuerst nach der verticalen, und alsdenn nach der horizontalen Lage der Dielen. Die Kosten dieses Mittels sind kaum der Berechnung werth. Mit diesem Ueberzuge wurde d. 7 Oct. 1779 zu St. Petersburg der Versuch an einem Gebäude gemacht, welches 14 engl. Fuß im Quadrat, und eben so viel Höhe hatte. Der Anstrich bestand aus 1/6 Kalk, 1/3 Sand, und der Hälfte gehackten Heu. Um allen Verdacht zu benehmen, war das Gebäude mit dürrem Holze angefüllt und bedeckt worden, und die Gluth wurde so stark, daß die Zuschauer es 100 Schritt davon kaum ausstehen konnten; und dennoch blieb das Gebäude unbeschädigt. Diese Erfindung soll auch den Vorzug haben, daß in London selbst, die Baukosten nur um 5 pro Cent erhöhet werden. Man darf indessen nicht glauben, als wenn dergleichen Ueberzüge oder Anstriche das Holz ganz und gar vor dem Anbrennen verwahreten; denn es verbrennt das Holz darunter, nachdem es dünn oder dick ist, in großer Gluth entweder völlig oder nur zum Theil hineinwärts, zu einer harten Kohle, welche aber hernach in den Gebäuden nicht mehr so, wie ungebranntes Holz, die Last hinlänglich trägt.

Endlich kann ich auch die Polhemsche Rüge. welche der verdiente Bergrath Glaser in neuern Zeiten wieder in Erinnerung gebracht hat, nicht mit Stillschweigen übergehen, daß nämlich der Hausschwamm vielleicht von dem zu nassen Scheuern des Fußbodens sehr oft hervorgelockt werde. Beide sind der Meinung, daß man die Dielenbretter mit wenig angefeuchteten Sägespänen, durch Hülfe des Besens, ohne sonderlich viel Wasser, sehr gut rein und weiß scheuern könne.

Erprobte Vorschriften zur Entfernung des Hausschwammes und des Mauersalzes bey neuen Bauten. Da man, der Natur der Sache nach, durch alle vorgeschlagenen Mittel das große Schwammübel und den verderblichen Mauerfraß nur etwas mindern, aber sehr selten gründlich heilen kann: so hat man bey Uebernahme neuer Bauten vor Allen für eine trockne und freie Baustelle zu sorgen, und zur sicheren Entfernung obiger Hausübel auf folgende Punkte notwendig zu achten:

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− Das Eichenholz, das vom Hauschwamm und vom Salpeterfraß nicht leidet, wäre allerdings für das in der Regel feuchte Erdgeschoß unserer Wohnungen dringend zu empfehlen, wenn uns nicht de Kostbarkeit desselben davon zurückbrächte. Da statt dessen aber doch das im feuchten Baugrunde unpassende Tannenholz seyn muß, so sorge man für festes und trocknes Bauholz, dass wenigstens einige Jahre lang auf schattigen und trocknen Plätzen aufgelagert worden ist. Vom gefällten Tannenholz lehrt die Erfahrung, daß es seine Feuchtigkeit erst im zweiten Jahr verliert, und zwar in dem Verhältniß, daß alsdann der Rheinländische Cubikfuß nur 36 Pfund schwer ist, der vorher noch über 60 Pfund am Gewichte hielt.

Diätetische Darstellung des schädlichen Einflusses, welchen bumpfige und mit unreinen Dünsten angefüllte Wohnungen auf den menschlichen Körper haben.

Die Luft, worin wir leben und unsere Geschäfte treiben, hat in ihrem reinen Zustande solche vortreffliche Eigenschaften, daß ihr beständiges Einathmen für den Menschen durchaus keine nachtheilige Folgen haben kann. Der Genuß einer reinen, freien Luft, wovon wir stündlich an 28 Kubikfuß consumieren, ist, nach Hufeland, eine ebenso nothwendige, ja noch unentbehrlichere Nahrung zur Erhaltung des Lebens, als Essen und Trinken. Zur Beförderung unsrer kostbaren Gesundheit ist es also durchaus Pflicht, Alles von unserm Körper zu entfernen, was den Luftantheil, worin wir uns befinden, verunreinigen kann. Unsere atmosphärische Luft besteht. nach den neuesten Untersuchuchungen (KLAPROTH UND

WOLLF. Chemisches Wörterbuch. Berlin 107; B. I. S. 209) in hundert Theilen dem Gewichte nach, aus 74 Stickgas und 26 Sauerstoffgas. Wird dieses Verhältniß durch den Betritt fremdartigen Stoffe, wobey insonderheit Verlust an Sauerstoff verbunden ist, verändert: so können wir dieß neue Luftgemisch für unsern Körper allemahl ungesund nennen. Unser beständiges Respiriren hebt freilich in den Wohnzimmern das nothwendige Verhältniß in den Bestandtheilen der reinen atmospherischen Luft schon auf, weil wir anämlich statt dieser eingesogenen, unaufhörlich kohlensaures Gas und Stickgas nebst Wasserdampf wieder aushauchen Beim Oeffnen der Thüren und Fenster wird, mit der eindringenden Luft, der Verlust von Sauerstoff bald wieder hergestellt, wovon die Luft in unsern Wohnzimmern unbedingt 16 Procent enthalten muß. Steigt im Gegentheil der Gehalt des kohlensauren Gases darin bis auf ein Sechstheil: so athmen wir schon schwer, und befinden uns nicht wohl, denn diese Luftart ist für sich zum Athemholen ganz untauglich. Nollet empfand beim Einathmen dieses Gases etwas Erstickendes, und zugleich eine gelinde Schärfe, die ihn zu Husten und Niesen reizte. Eben diese ungesunde Luftart ist es, welche der Hauschwamm in unseren Wohnungen in großer Menge hervorzubringen im Stande ist. Seine bekannte Ausdümstung von mulstrigem brenzlichem Geruche, besteht nämlich aus Kohlenstoff und Wasserstoff, die in die Zimmerluft übergehn, und selbiger den Antheil Sauerstoff rauben, durch dessen Verlust die Gesundheit des Bewohners so sehr gefährdet werden kann, insonderheit da jene beden Elementar-Stoffe in der atmospherischen Luft die Bildung eines höchst mephistischen Luftgemisches des kohlenstoffhaltigen Wasserstoffgases bedünstigen. Ueber die Schädlichkeit dieser Luftart wird man am besten aus den Versuchen des berühmten Englischen Physikers Davy in seinen Researches chemical and philosophical. London 1800, belehrt werden. Herr Davy war nämlich begierig, die dem Gefühle bemerkbaren Wirkungen des kohlenstoffhaltigen Wassersfoffgases kennen zu lernen, um sie mit denen des oxydiertn Stickgases, das nach vorhergegener Erregung tödtet, zu vergleichen. Bey dem ersten Versuche athmete Herr Davy beynahe eine Minute lang eine Mischung aus drey Quart Kohlenstoffhaltigen Wasserstoffgase, und beynahe zwey Quart atmosphärischen Luft. Es bewirkte einen leichten Schwindel und Schmerz im Kopfe, mit einem momentanen Verlust der Willenskraft; der Puls ward dabey schneller und schwächer. Diese Wirkung ging jedoch in fünf Minuten vorüber, und der Schwindel kam nicht wieder. Durch diesen ersten Versuch

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dreist gemacht, versuchte Herr Davy nun das kohlenstoffhaltige Wasserstoffgas unvermischt zu athmen. Dieser Pilz in den warmen Sommertagen auch durch den Geruch nach faulenden Fischen zu erkennen ist, daß er auch Phosphorsäure aushauche, die auch der berühmte Herr von Humboldt (M.s. dessen Schrift über den unterschiedlichen Gasarten. Brauschweig 1799, s. 184) aus vielen Pilzen sich entwickeln beobachtet hat. Auf solche Art würde der Hauschwamm zur Entwickelung dreyer Luftarten Anlaß geben, die unsere Wohnzimmer, auf Kosten unserer Gesundheit, vergiften.

Die Ausrottung des Hausschwammes wird aber in allen den Ländern und Gemeinden nicht ausführbar seyn, wo es noch solche Cammern und Bau-Kollegia gibt, als der Herr von Justi in seiner Staatswirtschaft Thl. II, S, 60 schildert:

− ”Die Cammern, Versichert er, suchen manchmal in solchen Dingen eine Erspahrung, wo sie am wenigsten stattfinden kann. Sie hüten sich auf alle Art vor dem Baue und lassen öfters die Gebäude flicken, so lange es nur einigermaßen gehen will, ob gleich die Wirtschaft und die Sachen darunter leiden. Wenn sie ja einen neuen Bau führen müssen: so geschieht es so leicht als möglich. Und nur gleichsan auf den Raub, dadurch aber ein schlechter Vortheil gestuftet wrd, weil in der Folge öfters viel größere Unkosten daraus entstehen, und die aufgewendeten sind gleichsan versplttert worden“.

Mit der Vertilgung des lichtscheuen schleichenden Hausschwammes muß aber auch die Entfernung des Mauersalzes aus unsern Mauern und Wänden verbunden werden, das durch seine, die Feuchtigkeit anziehende Eigenschaft, den schnellen Anwachs jenes Naturkörpers so sehr befördert, insonderheit da es für sich schon unsere Wohnungen unbrauchbar und deren Bewohner ungesund machen kann. Eine feuchte dumpfe Wohnung, worin der menschliche Körper schädliche Dünste einathmet, muß auf das reizbare Hautorgan durchaus sehr nachtheilig wirken, und ihn zu gefährlichen Krankheiten empfinglich machen, insondere da selbiger nach Cheyne und Langrisch die Dünste in einer feuchten Luft in die Maaße in sich zieht, daß dieß Gewicht mehr als die unmerkliche Ausdünstung, die man doch auf den Tag zu 2 Pfund 13 Unzen ansetzt, selbst beträgt. Das Nichtachten des so wichtigen Hautorgans, bringt nach den Beobachtung der Aerzte, viele Menschen vor der Zeit ins Grab. Ein Zimmer, worin sich die unreine Feuchtigkeit an den Wänden sammelt, und in Gestalt von Tropfen sichtbar wird, sagt Ackermann erschlafft den menschlichen Körper, und ist allein schon fähig alle Zufälle der Kacherie, einen dicken, aufgedunsteten Körper, geschwollene Füße, und Unordnung in den Verdaungswerkzeugen zu verursachen. Eine solche ungesunde Wohnung, setzt dieser menschanfreundliche Arzt hinzu, ist die Ursache des Todes bey seinen unbesorgten Bewohner!

Wie wohltätig ist also das jüdische Polizeygesetz, daß die gänzliche Entfernung der mit Mauersalz verunreinigten Baumateriale enthält, und auf solche Art der Haueigner zur sorgfältigem Verbesserung und zur vorsichitigen Anlegung seines Wohnhauses verpflichtet, haupsächlich um die Erhaltung seiner Gesundheit dadurch zu befördern. Dieß göttliche Gesetz verdient also auch heutiges Tages von allen Nationen beachtet und genau befolgt zu werden, weil es sich nicht bloß auf Aegypten und Palästine, oder auf jüdische Gegenden beschränkt, sondern weil es auch für nördliche Staaten sehr wohltätig werden kann.

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25. ARCHIV der Agrikulturchemie für denkende Landwirthe oder Sammlung der wichtigsten Entdeckungen, Erfahrungen und Beobachtungen aus dem Reiche der Physik und Chemie: für rationelle Landwirthe, Güterbesitzer, Forstmänner und Freunde der landwirthschaftlichen Gewerbe; 1, 2. 1804 Hrsg.: Hermbstaedt, Sigismund Friedrich, Realschulbuchhandlung, Berlin

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37. DIOSCORIDES, PEDANIUS *1. Jh.* 1598: Ta sōzomena hapanta] Pedakiu Dioskoridu Tu Anazabiōs Ta Sozomena Hapanta. Pedacii Diosoridis Anazarbaei Opera Qvæ Extant Omnia. Ex noua interpretatione Jani-Antonii Saraceni Lugdunæi, Medici. Addita sunt ad calcem eiusdem Interpretis Scholia, in quibus variae codicum variorum lectiones examinantur, diuersae de Medica materia, seu priscorum, seu etiam recentiorum sententiae proponuntur, ac interdum conciliantur: ipsius deni[que] Autoris corruptiora, obscuriora, difficiliora[que] loca restituuntur, illustrantur, et explicantur. Sarazin, Jean Antoine; Casaubon, Isaac *1559-1614*; Bèze, Théodore de *1519-1605*; Estienne, Paul *1566-1627*; Jenisch, Georg; Paludius, Johannes; Postius, Johannes; Schedel, Paul; Tournes, Jean de *1539-1615*. Frankfurt]: Wechel; [Frankfurt]: Marne; [Frankfurt]: Aubry

38. LAMARCK JEAN-BAPTISTE PIERRE ANTOINE DE MONET de; CANDOLLE AUGUSTIN PYRAMUS de, 1805: Flore Française: ou Description succinctes de toutes les plantes qui croissent naturellement en France. Disposée selon une nouvelle méthode d'analyse, et précédeé par une exposé des principes élémentaires de la botanique; Tom. I-IV / Jean Baptiste Pierre Antoine de Monet de Lamarck; Augustin Pyramus DeCandolle 3. Ed. A Paris : Carte: Carte botanique de France Desray, An 13 (1805)

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39. WAGENER SAMUEL CHRISTOPH 1801: Die Schule der Erfahrung für Alle, welchen Zufriedenheit, Leben und Gesundheit etwas werth sind. Zweite zum Volks- und Jugendbuche umgearbeitete wohlfeilere Ausgabe; X, 276 S. Berlin; 1801

40. MAGAZIN aller neuen Erfindungen, Entdeckungen und Verbesserungen für Fabrikanten, Manufakturisten, Künstler, Handwerker und Oekonomen.1809 Leipzig. In der Baumgärtnerischen Buchhandlung

41. OEKONOMISCHES PORTEFEUILLE zur Ausbreitung nützlicher Kenntnisse und Erfahrungen aus allen Theilen der Oekonomie. Lübeck 1.1786/87 - 2.1787/88; 3.1789

42. PRATJE JOHANN HINRICH 1786-1788: Oekonomisches Portefeuille zur Ausbreitung nützlicher Kenntnisse und Erfahrungen aus allen Theilen der Oekonomie. Lübeck: Ben Christian Gottfried Donatius

43. MANGER HEINRICH LUDEWIG 1785: Die ökonomische Bauwissenschaft zum Unterricht für den Landmann. Leipzig

44. KÖNIG, FRIEDRICH WILHELM 1788: Technologischer Beitrag zur Kenntnis des Salpeterfrases an dem Gemäuer und laufenden Schwammes an dem Holzwerk der Gebäude. Tübingen; Cotta, 1788

45. NEUE MONATSSCHRIFT VON UND FÜR MECKLENBURG, 1789. Tom 2 46. SIEMSEN ADOLPH Christian 1809: Naturgeschichte des Hausschwammen, des

Mauersalzes und des Mosaischen Häuser-Aufsatzes (33. B. Mose 14, 33.- 54.) nebst Vorschlägen zu deren Gänzlichen Vertilgung. Den Policey, Kollegien, Baukünstler und Oekonomen zur gefälligen Prüfung vorgelegt von Adolph Christian Siemsen, Ordentlichen Mitgliede der Meklenburgischen Naturforschenden Gesellschaft zu Rostock, und der Meklenburgischen Oekonomischen Gesellschaft, wie auch verschiedener auswärtiger physikalischen Gesellschaften Ehrenmitgliede. Leipzig und Rostock, bey Karl Christoph Stiller; 1809

Streszczenie: Ochrona drewna. W poniższym artykule przedstawiono metody ochrony drewna opisane przez znanych autorów od XVI do XIX wieku. W tych pracach stwierdzono, że sposoby konserwacji drewna można podzielić na kilka grup, w których znajdują się między innymi metody wykrywania grzyba domowego. W szczególności przedstawiono środki służące suszeniu, izolacji i bejcowania drewna jodłowego oraz współczesne metody jego zabezpieczania. Stwierdzono w nich także, że podstawą ochrony pomieszczeń mieszkalnych przed rozwojem grzyba domowego jest dobra wentylacja. Przedstawione opisy są dowodem, że podstawowe zasady ochrony drewna nie zmieniły się na przestrzeni wieków.

Corresponding authors: Ewa Dobrowolska, Wydział Technologii Drewna, Szkoła Główna Gospodarstwa Wiejskiego w Warszawie ul. Nowoursynowska 159, 02 – 776 Warszawa, e-mail: [email protected] Peter Niemz ETH Zurich, Institute for Building Materials, Wood Physics

57

Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW Forestry and Wood Technology № 93, 2016: 57-63 (Ann. WULS - SGGW, For. and Wood Technol. 93, 2016)

Determination of surface free energy of selected tropical wood species from

Africa

AGNIESZKA JANKOWSKA, TOMASZ KARKOWSKI Department of Wood Science and Wood Protection, Faculty of Wood Technology, Warsaw University of Life Sciences Abstract: Determination of surface free energy of selected tropical wood species from Africa In this study surface free energy selected tropical wood species was determined. The aim of this paper was to compare surface properties selected wood species from Africa using contact angle measurements. Selected for the tests wood species are popular material in Europe for floors and other elements of interiors equipment. During the research, basic anatomical cross sections – radial and tangential (as the most dominant in finished products) were analyzed separately. Parallel, the European wood species - Fagus sylvatica L., Pinus sylvestris L. and Quercus petraea (Matt.) Liebl. - were also tested for comparison. It was found that there is no significant difference between radial and tangential cross section in case of every tested wood species and wood structure has influence on properties of wood surfaces. Heartwood of tested European wood species is characterized by lower value of surface free energy than sapwood.

Keywords: surface free energy, wood from Africa, European wood species, radial and tangential cross section. INTRODUCTION The wood cell wall is composed of cellulose, lignin, hemicelluloses and extractives. Thus, the surface energy of wood material must be some combination of the surface energies of these components. The influence of extractives on wood surface chemistry can be important in diverse industrial applications, such as coating, pulping, and wood-based composites [Liu et al. 1998, Gindl et al. 2004]. Some of the extractives influenced by oxygen, light and high temperature can cause problems during finishing wooden materials [Proszczyk and Przybylak 1986]. According to the same authors, problems in the process of curing coating and painting may occur in the case of wood teak, rosewood, iroko, mansonii, ebony and wenge. Due to differences in the wood structure and chemical composition, it seems to be clear that the differences in wood properties would be [Popper et al. 2009]. According to Kajita and Skaar [1992], the greater wettability of sapwood compared with heartwood of American softwood is caused by the extractive content of the heartwood. Every developed material should be characterized in terms of surface properties determining further behavior in an aggressive environment (e.g. water or organic solvents) and – in consequence – susceptibility to degradation. Moreover, surface properties of a material strongly affect gluing, finishing or impregnation [Gindl et al. 2004]. Water contact angle is a measure allowing for characterization of surface properties. A single measurement provides a few important parameters: surface free energy, contact angle, wetting coefficient or work of adhesion. It is generally agreed that the measurement of contact angle on a given solid surface is the most practical way to obtain surface energies. Characterization of surface properties allows for prediction of interactions with wetting materials (lacquers or adhesives) [Wu and Nancollas 1999, Gérardin et al. 2007]. It is generally agreed that the measurement of contact angle on a given solid surface is the most practical way to obtain surface energies. The measurement of the contact angles of pure liquids, with known surface tension and hence surface tensions parameters on a given

58

solid surface are the common way of obtaining the surface energy of the solid material [Wu and Nancollas 1999]. So far there is lack information in the literature about studies concerning the examination of wettability or surface free energy of wood. In particular, there is a few information about surface properties of tropical wood and usually studies were performed using wood from moderate climate zone, e.g. [Kajita and Skaar 1992, Mantanis and Young 1997] and modified wood [Metsä-Kortelainen and Viitanen 2011, Qin et al. 2014]. In this study surface free energy of selected tropical wood species was determined. The aim of this paper was to compare surface properties selected wood species from Africa using contact angle measurements. Tested wood species are popular material in Europe for floors and other elements of interiors equipment. During the research, basic anatomical cross sections – radial and tangential (as the most dominant in finished products) were analyzed separately. Parallel, for comparison the popular European wood species were tested as well. This research is a survey research to further consideration of the surface properties of tropical timber. MATERIALS AND METHODS Wood species used in the study are given in table 1. In case of each wood species only wood from heartzone was tested. Only in case of Scots pine and European oak sapwood was included. Ten samples of each wood species with a radial and tangential cross-section separately of 8 x 10 mm and a length of 70 mm were stored in a climate chamber at a temperature of 20 °C and a relative humidity of 65 % until they had reached an equilibrium state at a moisture content close to 12 %. A radial-oriented or tangential-oriented surface of the wood block was cut with a sledge-microtome using a type ‘R35’ knife. According to Gardner et al. [1996] and Liptakova et al. [1994], a wood surface microtomed parallel to the grain only shows roughness caused by the cellular structure of wood and only negligibly small roughness caused by cutting. Furthermore the wood surface is chemically heterogeneous and therefore does not comply with the requirements of the physicochemical theory of contact angle in a strict sense. Table 1. Wood species used in the study

No Trade names according to

PN-EN 13556:2005 Latin name Characteristic details

Type of structure

1 European beech Fagus sylvatica L. wide wooden rays deciduous

semi-porous

2 European oak Quercus petraea (Matt.)

Liebl. wide wooden rays

deciduous ring-porous

3 Scots pine Pinus sylvestris L. present of resin coniferous

4 Opepe Nauclea diderrichii (De Wild. & Th. Dur.) Merr.

irregular fibres arrangement

deciduous semi-porous

5 Iroko Milicia excelsa (Welw.)

C. C. Berg

irregular fibres arrangement, axial parenchyma in bands

6 African padouk Pterocarpus soyauxii

Toub. axial parenchyma in narrow

bands

7 Wenge Millettia laurentii De

Wild. axial parenchyma in wide

bands

8 Sapele Entandophragma

cylindricum (Sprague) Sprague

irregular fibres arrangement

9 Ovangkol Guibourtia ehie

(A.Chev.) J.Leon. irregular fibres arrangement

10 Afzelia Afzelia africana Smith ex

Pen. irregular fibres arrangement

59

After microtoming, the wood block was placed into the contact angle measuring apparatus and measurements were started immediately. Surfaces free energies were obtained from measurements of contact angles. The contact angle is defined as the angle between the solid surface and a tangent, drawn on the drop-surface, passing through the triple-point atmosphere–liquid–solid [Zisman 1963]. Contact angles of expanding droplets, i.e. advancing angles, were determined using a contact angle measuring device. Surface properties were determined using Owens – Wendt methods on a Phoenix 300 contact angle analyzer cooperating with computer with proper software giving an image a drop on tested wood surfaces. An image analysis system calculated the contour of the drop from an image captured by means of a video camera. Ten to twenty measurements of contact angle were taken on each of three drops per liquid placed on ten microtomed wood samples. Measurements of wettability were after 30 seconds from drop of liquid dropped. In this study, two test liquids were used (Table 2). Table 2. Values of surface free energy and their components of used testing liquids [Rudawska 2013]

Testing liquids Surface free energy and their components [mJ/m2]

γL γLd γL

p

Destil water 72,8 21,8 51,0

Dijodomethan 50,8 48,5 2,3

Calculation of surface free energy was based on formulas:

p

s

d

ss γγγ += ,

( )( ) ( )

−

+Θ−+Θ

=

p

w

d

wp

d

d

d

wwp

w

p

ddd

d

s

γγ

γγ

γγγ

γγ

2

1cos1cos5,0

,

( ) ( )p

w

d

w

d

swwp

s

γ

γγγγ

2

21cos5,0 −+Θ= ,

where: γs - experimentally determined surface free energy (surface tension), γsd – dispersed

component of surface free energy, γsp – polar component of surface free energy, γd -

experimentally determined surface free energy (surface tension) of the diiodomethan, γdd -

dispersed component of surface free energy of diiodomethan, γdp - polar component of surface

free energy of diiodomethan, γw - experimentally determined surface energy (surface tension) of water, γw

d - dispersed component of surface free energy of water, γwp - polar component of

surface free energy of water, Θd – contact angle between tested surface and diiodomethan, Θw - contact angle between tested surface and water. Determined average values from testing each wood species and wood surface were assumed for contact angles. Obtained results of surface free energy are given with an accuracy of 0,1mJ/m2.

60

RESULTS The average values of the measured contact angles tested wood species are given in table 3. It should be noticed that in every cases contact angle between tested surface and diiodomethan is lower. This is an expected result because diiodomethan is apolar liquid of a lower surface free energy than distilled water. Table 3. Results of measurments of contact angle tested wood species *

Name of wood Anatomical cross section

Contact angle between surface and water Θw

[o]

Contact angle between surface and diiodomethan

Θd [o]

Scots pine (heartwood) tangential 63 (6) 18 (4)

radial 65 (8) 18 (5)

Scots pine (sapwood) tangential 55 (7) 19 (5)

radial 25 (4) 24 (4)

European oak (heartwood)

tangential 51 (7) 34 (7) radial 48 (6) 33 (4)

European oak (sapwood) tangential 45 (8) 31 (7)

radial 46 (8) 24 (4)

European beech tangential 45 (6) 24 (6)

radial 44 (10) 26 (6)

African padouk tangential 63 (7) 25 (4)

radial 61 (7) 23 (4)

Iroko tangential 36 (4) 30 (4)

radial 45 (5) 34 (4)

Wenge tangential 58 (6) 31 (5)

radial 56 (6) 37 (4)

Opepe tangential 55 (9) 20 (3)

radial 55 (8) 23 (6)

Sapele tangential 60 (6) 26 (4)

radial 58 (4) 24 (3)

Afzelia tangential 51 (5) 28 (4)

radial 52 (13) 29 (3)

Ovangkol tangential 55 (5) 29 (5)

radial 44 (4) 30 (6) * Standard deviations are shown in parentheses

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Figure 1. Results of measurements surface free energy tested wood species on tangential and radial cross section The results of determining surface free energy using Owens – Wendt method are given on figure 1. In most of the cases, radial surfaces showed higher value of free surface energy. However, there is no significant differences between radial and tangential cross section in case of every tested wood species (t-Student test were used). Iroko and wenge wood was exception what means that in case of both wood species tangential cross section showed higher value of free surface energy. Probably it was caused by wood structure. Both iroko and wenge are wood with wide tangential parenchyma bands. Other wood species did not have such a wide tangential parenchyma bands. This type of tissue was present mainly in wooden rays. It confirmed that wood structure has influence on properties of wood surfaces. Moreover, besides iroko and wenge, also opepe wood showed higher value of free surface energy on tangential cross section. It can be caused by irregular fibres arrangement. The average value of surface free energy on tangential cross section for all tested wood species was 53,6 mJ/m², and on radial cross section 54,5 mJ/m². This surmise finds confirmation in literature [Kudela et al. 2015] that there is no difference in surface properties between radial and tangential cross section. But according to Tokareva et al. [2007], the surface chemistry and wetting properties of technical wood surfaces are directly dependent on the wood surface morphology resulting from the wood machining process used as surface formation method, and also vary greatly between e.g. the cross section and radial or tangential sections. It allows concluding that studies in this area are incomplete and knowledge in this field of expertise should be followed-up. Moreover, we found that both in case of Scots pine and European oak heartwood is characterized by lower free surfaces energy than sapwood. Heartwood and sapwood tested European wood species came from one board, so probably, following Kajita and Skaar [1992], the reason of differences is difference in chemical composition (higher contain of extractives in heartwood). European beech is non-heartwood species and other tested wood was derived from heartwood zone. The differences between surface properties of European beech and tropical wood seem obvious, but differences between tropical wood species require verification by analysis of chemical composition and structure.

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CONCLUSIONS The objective of this paper was to compare surface properties selected wood species from Africa using contact angle measurements. Selected for the tests wood species are popular material in Europe for floors and other elements of interiors equipment. During the research, basic anatomical cross sections – radial and tangential (as the most dominant in finished products) were analyzed separately. Parallel, for comparison the popular European wood species were tested as well. Based on the results and their analysis we can derive the following conclusions:

1. There is no significant difference between radial and tangential cross section in case of every tested wood species.

2. Wood structure (fibres arrangement, parenchyma bands) has influence on properties of wood surfaces.

3. Heartwood tested European wood species is characterized by lower free surfaces energy than sapwood.

REFERENCES

1. GARDNER D.J., 1996: Application of the Lifshitz-van der Waals acid-base approach to determine wood surface tension components. Wood and Fiber Science, Vol. 28 (4): 422-428.

2. GÉRARDIN P., PETRIČ M., PETRISSANS M., LAMBERT J., EHRHRARDT J.J., 2007: Evolution of wood surface free energy after heat treatment. Polymer Degradation and Stability, Vol. 92 (4): 653–657. doi:10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2007.01.016

3. GINDL M., REITERER A., SINN G., STANZL-TSCHEGG S. E., 2004: Effects of surface ageing on wettability, surface chemistry, and adhesion of wood. Holz als Roh- und Werkstoff Vol. 62 (4): 273-280.

4. KAJITA H., SKAAR C., 1992: Wettability of the surfaces of some American softwoods species. Mokuzai Gakk 38: 516-521.

5. KÚDELA J., WESSERLE F., BAKŠA J., 2015: Influence of moisture content of beech wood on wetting and surface free energy. Acta Facultatis Xylologiae Zvolen, 57(1): 25−35.

6. LIPTÁKOVÁ, E., KÚDELA, J., 1994: Analysis of the wood-wetting process. Holzforschung, Vol. 48 (2): 139-144.

7. LIU F.P., RIALS T.G., SIMONSEN J., 1998: Relationship of Wood Surface Energy to Surface Composition. Langmuir, Vol. 14 (2): 536–541. doi: 10.1021/la970573y

8. MANTANIS G. I., YOUNG R. A., 1997: Wetting of wood. Wood Science and Technology, Vol. 31: 339-353.

9. METSÄ-KORTELAINEN S., VIITANEN H., 2011: Wettability of sapwood and heartwood of thermally modified Norway spruce and Scots pine. European Journal of Wood and Wood Products, Vol. 70 (1): 135-139.

10. POPPER R., NIEMZ P., CROPTIER S., 2009: Adsorption and desorption measurments on selected exotic wood Species. Analysis with the Hailwood-Horrobin model to describe the sorption hysteresis. Wood Research, Vol. 54 (4): 43-56.

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11. PROSZCZYK S., PRZYBYLAK A., 1986: Wpływ ubocznych składników drewna na utwardzanie środków wiążących i uszlachetniających. Skrypt Akademii Rolniczej w Poznaniu, Poznań.

12. QIN Z., ZHANG Q., GAO Q., ZHANG S., LI J., 2014: Wettability of sanded and aged fast-growing poplar wood surfaces: II Dynamic Wetting Models. BioResources, Vol. 9 (4): 7176-7188.

13. SHUPE T.E., HSE C., CHOONG E.T., GROOM L.H., 1998: Effect of wood grain and veneer side on loblolly pine veneer wettability. Forest Products Journal, 48(6): 95-97.

14. TOKAREVA E.N., FARADIM P., PRANOVICH A.V., FAGERHOLM H.-P., DANIEL G., HOLMBOM B., 2007: Imaging of wood tissue by ToF-SIMS: Critical evaluation and development of sample preparation techniques. Applied Surface Science, Vol. 253: 7569–7577. doi:10.1016/j.apsusc.2007.03.059

15. WU W., NANCOLLAS G.H., 1999: Determination of interfacial tension from crystallization and dissolution data: a comparison with other methods. Advances in Colloid and Interface Science, Vol. 79 (2–3): 229–279. doi:10.1016/S0001-8686(98)00072-4

16. ZISMAN W. A., 1963: Influence of constitution on adhesion. Ind. Eng. Chem., 55 (10):18–38. doi: 10.1021/ie50646a003

Streszczenie: Wyznaczenie swobodnej energii powierzchniowej drewna wybranych gatunków

z Afryki W ramach niniejszej pracy dokonano analizy właściwości powierzchni drewna tropikalnego. Celem pracy było porównanie właściwości powierzchni drewna pochodzącego z Afryki przy zastosowaniu pomiarów kąta zwilżania powierzchni (metoda „osadzonej” kropli). Wybrane do badań gatunki i rodzaje drewna stanowią grupę materiałów popularnych w Europie przy wykorzystaniu na materiały podłogowe oraz meble. W trakcie badań odrębnie analizowano przekrój styczny i promieniowy drewna, jako przekroje najbardziej dominujące w gotowych wyrobach. Równolegle, dla celów porównawczych przeprowadzono badania na drewnie krajowym Fagus sylvatica L., Pinus sylvestris L. i Quercus petraea (Matt.) Liebl.. W wyniku przeprowadzonych badań stwierdzono, że nie ma statystycznie istotnej różnicy we właściwościach powierzchni drewna pomiędzy przekrojem stycznym i promieniowym. Stwierdzono wpływ struktury na swobodną energię powierzchniową badanych rodzajów i gatunków drewna. Corresponding author: Agnieszka Jankowska, Ph.D. Department of Wood Sciences and Wood Protection, Faculty of Wood Technology, Warsaw University of Life Sciences (WULS-SGGW) Nowoursynowska 159 St., 02-776 Warsaw, Poland E-mail: [email protected] Phone: +4822 5938634 Fax: +4822 5938631

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Physical and mechanical properties and anatomy of breaking

buckthorn wood (Frangula alnus Mill.) PAWEŁ KOZAKIEWICZ, AGNIESZKA BURDA Department of Wood Science and Wood Preservation, Faculty of Wood Technology, Warsaw University of Life Sciences - SGGW, 159 Nowoursynowska St., 02-776 Warsaw

Abstract: Despite the prevalence of breaking buckthorn, its wood structure and properties had not been fully characterized. Within the study presented in this paper, ten stems of breaking buckthorn obtained from more than twenty-year-old plants were investigated. These shrubs grew in Bojary – a subdistrict of Biłgoraj forest district, in spodic soil, in wetland typical for this species. The wood of breaking buckthorn is fine-ringed and consists of evenly coloured heartwood and relatively narrow layer of sapwood. Annual rings are very narrow and slightly undulated. The wood’s advantages are low shrinkage and low anisotropy. Its density is also relatively low, mechanical properties are moderate – lower than properties of structurally similar black cherry wood.

Key words: breaking buckthorn wood, anatomy of wood, physical and mechanical properties of wood

INTRODUCTION Breaking buckthorn (Frangula alnus Mill.) is a 1.3 to 3 meters high shrub or a

relatively small tree with rounded or shaggy crown growing up to 6 meters [Bugała 2000]. Breaking buckthorn exists in almost whole Poland – mainly in lowland but also in lower upland regions – up to 1500 m.a.s.l. [Pokorny 1992]. Due to environmental preferences of discussed plant, it became an indicator of habitat humidity. This species grows much more often in moist soils, wetlands and floodplains than in drylands and sandy terrains [Seneta, Dolatowski 2008].

Breaking buckthorn grows fast in its youth [Tomanek 1997, Sobczak 1996] – in the age of 11 it reaches up to approximately 2.5 meters [Jaworski 2011]. Later the growth rate decreases and the plant lives to average age of about 60 years [Pokorny 1992, Gil 2010].

Breaking buckthorn stems consist of narrow sapwood layer coloured yellow or lemon yellow [Johnson and More 2009] and heartwood, which could be yellow or – more often – reddish or red [Drozd, Florek 2000, Tomanek 1997, Sobczak 1996, Gil 2010]. Breaking buckthorn is semi-ring porous species with narrow wood rays [Schweingruber 1990]. Until now, breaking buckthorn wood has been used to a small extent and present literature does not provide sufficient information about its properties. However, it is stated in many papers that sticks of breaking buckthorn were kilned in the past to produce charcoal for gunpowder preparation [Seneta, Dolatowski 2008, Boryczko 1997, Johnson and More 2009].

The aim of the study presented in this paper is to investigate chosen physical and mechanical properties of breaking buckthorn wood and to analyze its anatomical structure. The results obtained in the study should fill the gap in knowledge about the discussed wood and allow to identify and assess its potential applications.

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MATERIAL AND METHODS Ten stems of breaking buckthorn were chosen for the study. They were acquired from 1.8 to 2.4 meters high plants cut down in the age between 20 to 22 years. They grew in Bojary – a subdistrict of Biłgoraj forest district, in spodic soil, in wetland typical for this species. After drying the wood to air-dried condition it was cut into standard specimens to determine particular physical and mechanical properties. The determination was performed according to procedures of properties investigation based on small laboratory specimens described in polish standards [PN-D-04117:1963, PN-D-04103:1968, PN-D-04100:1977, PN-D-04101:1977, PN-D-04102:1979, PN-D-04111:1982]. Most of applied procedures is consistent with international standards [ISO 3130:1975, ISO 3131:1975, ISO 3133:1975, ISO 3787:1976, ISO 4858:1982]. Additionally, the following properties were also investigated: velocity of parallel to grain transition of ultrasonic waves and dynamic modulus of elasticity – using 40kHz frequency. The results were compared with the data obtained from black cherry (Prunus serotina L.) wood study presented in the literature [Wagenführ 2007, Kozakiewicz 2010]. In the same time, permanent microscopic slides of breaking buckthorn heartwood were prepared. 15-20 μm thick specimens presenting three basic anatomical sections were sliced from plasticized wood soaked in solution of water, ethanol and glycerine. Then they were coloured with safranin and mounted in Canada balsam and xylene. Observations and measurements of structural elements were made using Olympus BX-41 microscope equipped with digital camera and image analysis software Cell-B*. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

In air-dried wood (fig. 1) heartwood of breaking buckthorn is homogeneously pastel orange-brown coloured and surrounded by contrasting narrow greyish sapwood consisting of a few annual rings. The brown-grey oval pith’s diameter is approximately 1 mm. Breaking buckthorn annual rings are very narrow (average width is slightly greater than 1mm) and slightly undulated. Likewise black berry, breaking buckthorn is semi-ring porous species. Fig. 1 presents three basic anatomical sections demonstrating microscopic structure of its wood.

In breaking buckthorn wood there is a significant difference between size of vessels of early- and latewood. Vessels in earlywood are distributed mainly individually, less often arranged in groups of 2-3 building loose rings. The shape of vessels in transverse section is slightly oval. Their diameter is 0.067 mm in radial direction and 0.060 mm in tangential direction. On average, there is 75 vessels in 1 mm2 of transverse section. In latewood the vessels are distributed individually, but also – equally often – in groups of 2-3 or sometimes even 4-7. Their diameters in both: radial and tangential direction is similar and equals 0.026 mm. There is approximately 150 vessels in 1 mm2 of transverse section. The wood structure consists of numerous relatively short fibres of medium wall thickness aligned in straight radial rows. They are complemented by few cells of parenchyma. There is a simple perforation in transverse walls of vessels elements and significant strengthening helical thickenings in longitudinal walls. Longitudinal walls contain many funnel pits without plugs. Wood rays are heterocellular – they are composed of marginal layer of upright parenchyma cells and central layers of recumbent parenchyma cells. The rays are narrow, predominantly 3-4 cells wide, less often composed of 1, 2 or 5 rows. The narrower rays are much lower (composed of a few layers) than wider rays (even a few dozen layers high). Its width varies from 0.008 to 0.020 mm, its height: from 0.1 to 0.8 mm (with 27 mm average). There is approximately 25 wood rays in 1 mm2 of tangential section. The structure of wood is not storied. The microscopic observations made in this study specify previous data about breaking buckthorn structure presented in literature [Schweingruber 1990, Schoch et. al. 2004].

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a) b) c)

Figure 1. Microscopic structure of breaking buckthorn wood (Frangula alnus Mill.): a) transverse section, b) radial section, c) tangential section

Table 1 presents results of determination of breaking buckthorn wood physical and mechanical properties. The average density of air-dried wood is 530 kg·m-3 so it can be classified as light wood of 4th class of heaviness. The investigated sample was homogenous, as it is indicated by low standard deviation of about 5%. Total shrinkage of breaking buckthorn wood was small: 4.2% in radial and 6.5% in tangential direction – the resulting anisotropy is also small: about 1.5. According to classification based on volumetric shrinkage, breaking buckthorn wood – with an average volumetric shrinkage of 10.8% – is moderately shrinkable (I class). As a result of observation it can be concluded that the wood has no tendency to warp and crack during drying process. Table 1. The physical and mechanical properties of breaking buckthorn wood (Frangula alnus Mill.)

Property of wood Unit Value Standard deviation min. average max.

Density kg · m-3 466 530 580 27,8 Longitudinal shrinkage % 0,11 0,21 0,32 0,06 Radial shrinkage % 3,9 4,2 4,9 0,4 Tangential shrinkage % 5,7 6,5 7,0 0,5 Volumetric shrinkage % 9,9 10,8 12,1 0,7 Velocity of longitudinal ultrasonic waves m·s-1 4546 4814 5075 172,1 Dynamic modulus of elasticity GPa 7,8 9,2 10,8 0,8 Static bending strength MPa 59,8 76,5 95,1 9,2 Static modulus of elasticity in bending GPa 6,45 7,20 8,31 0,59 Compressive strength parallel to grain MPa 40,0 50,8 58,4 4,37 Density and mechanical properties were tested of air-dried wood (12% moisture content)

The average parallel to grain compressive strength of breaking buckthorn wood is 50.8

MPa and is lower than average strength of black cherry (59.0 MPa) [Kozakiewicz 2010a]. However, it is relatively high, what allowed to use the wood as a material for butcher pins, umbrellas handles and shoemakers spikes [Milewski and Hejmanowski 1965]. In respect of discussed property the sample was exceptionally uniform – the standard deviation was only 0.82%.

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Rc = 0,096 g

R = 0,40

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

450 475 500 525 550 575 600

density of wood [kg/m3]

com

pre

ssiv

e s

tre

ng

th [

MP

a]

Fig.2. Dependence between compressive strength parallel to grain and density of breaking buckthorn wood (moisture content 12%)

Compressive strength of breaking buckthorn wood is directly proportional to its density (fig.2), what may be described with a formula: Rc12% = 0,096 g12% MPa, where: Rc12% is compressive strength parallel to grain and g12 is a density of wood of 12% moisture content. This relation is not very strong, as it is indicated by low coefficient of correlation (r = 40). One of the reasons could be a low diversity of density in investigated sample.

Static modulus of elasticity was only 7.2 GPa on average and static bending strength of investigated breaking buckthorn wood was 76.5 MPa on average (these values are significantly lower than correspondent properties of black cherry wood [Kozakiewicz 2010a].) The crucial factor reducing values of the mentioned parameters is presence of small knots and trunk-curvatures natural for this wood. The investigated wood from twenty years old stems is also characterized by significant content of weaker juvenile wood. Due to above-mentioned reasons, no significant correlation between specified mechanical properties and wood density was observed.

The name of the genus originates from Latin word frangere, which means ‘to break’ or ‘to crumble’. Probably the name is related to delicacy and fragility of sticks [Bugała 2000, Seneta and Dolatowski 2008]. This fragility is partially confirmed by images of damages of specimens. In case of compression test, most of specimens were destroyed by “cutting” and on only three samples the “cracks” (indirectly testifying to fragility of the material) were observed. The dominant type of damages is characteristic for air-dried wood of medium density, homogenous (straight grained) structure and small differences between early- and latewood [Kozakiewicz 2010b]. However, in case of bending, most of specimens were characterized by smooth burst in extended area and crack in the area of maximum shear stress (in neutral surface, what confirms wood’s fragility).

Having taken into consideration the structure and properties of breaking buckthorn wood and rather small dimensions of material, it could be stated that its potential application may be production of fancy goods. In this field dimensions and shape stability of discussed wood are big advantages.

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CONCLUSIONS On the basis of presented study of breaking buckthorn (Frangula alnus Mill.) wood

the following statements were concluded: 1. In investigated wood, there are vessels of different size – bigger and clearly oval in

earlywood and smaller and round in latewood (semi-ring porous structure). The radial diameter of earlywood vessels is more than 2.5 times greater than diameter of latewood vessels. This wood has narrow and slightly undulated annual rings and evenly coloured heartwood.

2. The investigated wood moisture content is 12% and its average density: 530 kg·m-3. This wood is characterized by low shrinkage (4.2% in radial and 6.5% in tangential direction) and low anisotropy of shrinkage (high shape stability).

3. The mechanical properties of breaking buckthorn wood are relatively low: compressive strength (50.8 MPa), modules of elasticity (6-10 GPa) and bending strength (76.5 MPa). The look of fractures confirms wood’s fragility.

4. The compressive strength parallel to grain depends on density of breaking buckthorn wood and is directly proportional to it. The analogical dependencies were not observed between the rest of properties (including the velocity of ultrasonic waves transition) and the most probable explanation for this fact is the presence of locally deviated fibres and small knots in longer specimens.

REFERENCES

1. BORYCZKO E., 1997: Kruszyna pospolita… i proch strzelniczy. Aura nr 3, s.32. 2. BUGAŁA W., 2000: Drzewa i krzewy. Wydanie III poprawione. Państwowe

Wydawnictwo Rolnicze i Leśne. Warszawa. 3. GIL W., 2010: Krzewy w gospodarce leśnej. Powszechne Wydawnictwo Rolnicze

i Leśne. Warszawa. 4. ISO 3130:1975 Wood – Determination of moisture content for physical and

mechanical tests. International Organisation for Standardization. 5. ISO 3131:1975 Wood – Determination of density for physical and mechanical tests. 6. ISO 3133:1975 Determination of ultimate strength in static bending. 7. ISO 3787:1976 Wood - Test methods - Determination of ultimate stress in

compression parallel to grain. 8. ISO 4858:1982 Wood - Determination of volumetric shrinkage. 9. JAWORSKI A., 2011: Hodowla Lasu – Charakterystyka hodowlana drzew i krzewów

leśnych. Tom III. Powszechne Wydawnictwo Rolnicze i Leśne. Warszawa. 10. Johnson O., More D., 2009: Przewodnik Collinsa. Drzewa. Multico Oficyna

Wydawnicza. Warszawa. 11. KOZAKIEWICZ P., 2010a: Czeremcha amerykańska (Prunus serotina Ehrh..) -

drewno z Ameryki Północnej. Przemysł Drzewny nr 4 2010 Rok LXI, s.37-40. 12. KOZAKIEWICZ P., 2010b: Wpływ temperatury i wilgotności na wytrzymałość na

ściskanie wzdłuż włókien wybranych rodzajów drewna o zróżnicowanej gęstości i budowie anatomicznej. Rozprawy naukowe i monografie – 370 pozycje serii. Wydawnictwo SGGW. Warszawa.

13. MILEWSKI J., HEJMANOWSKI S., 1965: Drzewa i krzewy stosowane w zadrzewieniach. Państwowe Wydawnictwo Rolnicze i Leśne. Warszawa.

14. PN-D-04100:1977 Drewno. Oznaczanie wilgotności. 15. PN-D-04101:1977 Drewno. Oznaczanie gęstości. 16. PN-D-04102:1979 Drewno. Oznaczanie wytrzymałości na ściskanie wzdłuż włókien. 17. PN-D-04103:1968 Fizyczne i mechaniczne własności drewna. Oznaczanie

wytrzymałości na zginanie statyczne.

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18. PN-D-04111:1982 Drewno. Oznaczanie skurczu i spęcznienia. 19. PN-D-04117:1963 Fizyczne i mechaniczne właściwości drewna. Oznaczanie

współczynnika sprężystości przy zginaniu statycznym. 20. POKORNY J., 1992: Drzewa znane i mniej znane. Polska Oficyna Wydawnicza

,,BGW”. Warszawa. 21. SCHOCH W., HELLER I., SCHWEINGRUBER F.H., KIENAST F., 2004: Wood

anatomy of central European Species. Online version http://www.woodanatomy.ch . 22. SCHWEINGRUBER F.H., 1990: Anatomie europäischer Hölzer: Ein Atlas zur

Bestimmung europäischer Baum-, Strauch- und Zwergstrauchhölzer. Anatomy of European wood: An atlas fort he identification of European tress, shrubs and draft shrubs. Verlag Paul Haupt Bern und Stuttgart.

23. SENETA W., DOLATOWSKI J., 2008: Dendrologia. Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN. Warszawa.

24. SOBCZAK R., 1996: Drzewa naszych lasów. Wydawnictwo Świat. Warszawa. 25. TOMANEK J., 1997: Botanika Leśna. Wydanie IV poprawione. Państwowe

Wydawnictwo Rolnicze i Leśne. Warszawa. 26. WAGENFÜHR R., 2007: Holzatlas.6., neu bearbeitete und erweitere Auflage. Mit

zahlreichen Abbildungen. Fachbuchverlag Leipzig im Carl Hanser Verlag, München.

Streszczenie: Właściwości fizyczne i mechaniczne oraz budowa anatomiczna drewna

kruszyny pospolitej (Frangula alnus Mill.). Mimo powszechności występowania kruszyny pospolitej jej drewno nie zostało dotąd w pełni scharakteryzowane pod względem budowy i właściwości. W ramach niniejszej pracy zbadano dziesięć pni kruszyny pospolitej pozyskanych z roślin w wieku ponad 20 lat. Krzewy te rosły w Nadleśnictwie Biłgoraj w Leśnictwie Bojary na gruntach leśnych na glebie bielicowej na podmokłym terenie typowym dla tego gatunku. Drewno kruszyny pospolitej to drewno o równomiernie zabarwionej twardzieli. Przyrosty roczne są wąskie i lekko sfalowane oraz dobrze widoczne ze względu na znaczącą różnicę w wielkości naczyń drewna wczesnego i późnego (typ struktury półpierścieniowonaczyniowy). Średnia gęstości drewna w stanie powietrzno-suchym wynosi ok. 530 kg·m-3, co determinuje umiarkowane właściwości wytrzymałościowe – słabsze od podobnego strukturalnie drewna czeremchy amerykańskiej. Biorąc pod uwagę budowę i właściwości drewna kruszyny pospolitej, a także niewielkie wymiary surowca, potencjalnym zastosowaniem są różnego rodzaju wyroby galanteryjne do czego zachęca wysoka stabilność wymiarowa i kształtu (mała kurczliwość i jej niska anizotropia). Corresponding author: Paweł Kozakiewicz Department of Wood Sciences and Wood Preservation Faculty of Wood Technology Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW 159 Nowoursynowska St. 02-776 Warsaw, Poland email: [email protected] http://pawel_kozakiewicz.users.sggw.pl phone: +48 22 59 38 647 fax: +48 22 59 386 59

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Analysis of design solution the combined scissor lift

MÁRIA KRAJČOVIČOVÁ Technical University in Zvolen T. G. Masaryka 24, 96053 Zvolen, Slovak rep. ++421 45 5206546, Fax: ++421 45 5320015, E-mail: [email protected] ANDREJ CHUDÝ ++421 45 5206546, Fax: ++421 45 5320015, E-mail: [email protected] ĽUBOMÍR JAVOREK Technical University in Zvolen T. G. Masaryka 24, 96053 Zvolen, Slovak rep. ++421 45 5206546, Fax: ++421 45 5320015, E-mail: [email protected] JÁN SVOREŇ Technical University in Zvolen T. G. Masaryka 24, 96053 Zvolen, Slovak rep. ++421 45 5206546, Fax: ++421 45 5320015, E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract: Analysis of design solution the combined scissor lift . Solving the combined transport equipment where the primary task is to pick up the material to a certain level with a subsequent movement according to the specified input parameters, the static computation is a very important part. The dimensioning of all components of construction design meets the strength conditions. The most critical part of the equipment is computed in more detail, due to the highest load effect on it. In this place, the highest bending moment appears. Owing to the versatility of solution, use a roller conveyor in a combination with a lifting scissor does not restrict its use only at sorting and handling a timber in the woodworking industry, but also in the other industries. In practice, more combined platforms arranged in series, parallel or a combination of both can be used at sorting with the result of sorting equipment for a higher range of processed timber. Keywords: manipulation, transport, construction, analysis INTRODUCTION The task of logistic working devices is to carry out the logistic functions in a process chains resulting in the implementation of logistic transformation in the rings of these chains. Various manipulation and transport vehicles are being used for this purpose. An ideal device is that, which combines several functions, does not take up so much space and it is able to work safely and quickly. Combined scissor lift with a roller conveyor is one of the possible devices, which meets the mentioned parameters. A design of this device combines the material, technological and construction elements. By their interconnection and mutual combination, the solution of one or more logistic hubs arises in a process of production and storage. The mechanical performance of an object that we design is that it transforms itself, by itself. For us, motion is not about a physical quantity – it is about changing relationships; a mechanism is an embodied system of relationships, whose changes troughs motion are carefully designed. To describe motion, kinetics studies the trajectories of points and lines and their differential properties such as velocity and acceleration. In a typical scissors mechanism there are two straight pivoting components connected at the center that form a crisscross X

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pattern; the two lines that connect the endpoints remain parallel as the mechanism movies (Fig. 1). (KORALEVIC, PARLAC 2015)

Figure 1 Scissor mechanism (Source: KORALEVIC, PARLAC 2015)

The scissors mechanism paradigm refers not so much to the scissors we use to cut paper, but rather to the scissors mechanism employed in automobile jacks, makeup mirrors and a variety of other devices. When you move the ends of the implements two legs together, this mechanism can extend to many times its original height. Because the scissors mechanism cams operate while maintaining many points of attachment, it lends itself to such uses as expandable supports, gates and railings. And its structural integrity need not be compromised in the process of making it larger or smaller. While this paradigm is widely employed in manufactured goods, this is not a paradigm directly found in nature, although it is related to arms, legs and wings. (WAKE 2000) INPUT PARAMETERS FOR THE SCISSOR PLATFORMS DESIGN The individual positions, in which the scissor platform will be lifted, have to be firstly determined for the computation of reactions. The height of 1 000 mm was chosen as a default position. The second position is in the height of 1 500 mm and the end position is in the height of 2 000 mm.

Figure 2 The position of scissor lifts (Source: Diploma Thesis, Chudý 2014)

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An angle, formed between the scissor lift arm and the horizontal plane, is computed for the individual positions as:

β1 = arcsin ��

� = arcsin

��,��

� = 9,59° (1)

β2 = arcsin ��

� = arcsin

��,��

� = 19,47° (2)

β3 = arcsin �

� = arcsin

�

� = 30° (3)

where: l - length of the scissor mechanism arms (l = 1000 mm), the values b1,b2,b3 are

determined as �

� of the value of total lift for the certain positions.

Figure 3 The scheme of lifting for the first couple of scissor mechanism (Source: Diploma Thesis, Chudý 2014)

A STATIC SOLUTION OF COMBINED SCISSOR LIFT The solution of combined scissor lift with the roller conveyor is a system of two basic constructional solutions, where the designed conveyor is a main and moving part in the horizontal direction and the lifting platform is a bearing and moving part in the vertical direction. The scheme of this solution is shown in Fig. 4, where the hydraulic motor is replaced with a hydraulic force FH.

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Figure 4 The scheme of scissor mechanism (Source: Diploma Thesis, Chudý 2014)

1 - roller conveyor, 2 - 7 - arms of scissor mechanism, 8 - bottom frame.

Determination of degrees of freedom: • Connections A, J - rotational = 2 • Connections C, D, E, F, G, H, I, - pinned = 2 • Connections B, K - short line = 1 The total number of withdrawn degrees of freedom: ∑ ξi = 2 ∙ 2 + 7 ∙ 2 + 2 ∙ 1 = 20 ° (4)

i = (nc-1) ∙ it − ∑ ξi = (8-1) ∙ 3 − 20 = 1° (5) where: nc – number of system members it – number of degrees of freedom in a plane of the body ξi – number of degrees of freedom withdrawn by connections The scissor mechanism has one degree of freedom. Due to the arms movement, it is necessary to effect on the arms by an external force FH which is caused by the hydraulic motor. THE SOLUTION OF A CRITICAL PART OF SYSTEM WITH THE HIGHEST LOAD CAUSED BY BENDING MOMENT The body 1 is a roller conveyor. It is loaded by transported cut-out with the point in the centre. Its value is determined by the maximum mass mmax = 160 kg. The weight of the roller conveyor was found out by PTC Creo 2.0 software mdopr = 140 kg. Total load is the sum of the weights. mcelk=mmax+mdopr=160kg+140kg=300kg (6)

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Fcelk=mcelk ∙ g=300kg ∙ 9,81 m.s-2= 2943N≅3000N (7) Total load is equally divided into two parts due to the two couples of scissor mechanism.

G = ��

�=

��

� = 1500 N (8)

The computation of pins distance for the individual positions: p1 = cosβ1 ∙ l = cos 9,59° ∙ 1000mm = 986mm (9) p2 = cosβ21 ∙ l = cos 19,47° ∙ 1000mm = 942mm (10) p3 = cosβ3 ∙ l = cos 30° ∙ 1000mm = 866mm (11)

The seventh member was chosen for this computation due to the highest load effecting on it. The arms of combined device are designed for the stroke value h1 = 500 mm. This position is the most critical from the point of the bending moment.

Figure 5 The real orientation of the load effecting on the member 7 (Source: Diploma Thesis, Chudý 2014)

The forces resolution into the local coordinate system, x 'and y': JXX = JX . sinβ = 26633,98 N . sin 9.59° = 26261,77 N (12) JXY = JX . cosβ = 26633,98 N . cos 9.59° = 4437,13 N (13) JYX = JY . sinβ = 845,86 N . sin 9.59° = 140,92 N (14) JYY = JY . cosβ = 845,86 N . cos 9.59° = 834,04 N (15) IXX = IX . cosβ = 44390 N . cos 9.59° = 43769,66 N (16) IXY = IX . sinβ = 44390N . sin 9.59° = 7395,26 N (17) IYX = IY . sinβ = 191,74 N . sin 9.59° = 31,94 N (18) IYY = IY . cosβ = 191,74 N . cos 9.59° = 189,06 N (19)

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GXX = GX . cosβ = 17756,03 N . cos 9.59° = 17507,89 N (20) GXY = GX . sinβ = 17756,03 N . sin 9.59° = 2958,1 N (21) GYX = GY . sinβ = 654,14 N . sin 9.59° = 108,98 N (22) GYY= GY . cosβ = 654,14 N . cos 9.59° = 644,99 N (23)

Figure 6 Loading of the member 7 in a local coordinate system (Source: Diploma Thesis, Chudý 2014)

The resulting load computations: J´X = JXX + JYX = 4437,13 N + 140,92 N = 4578,05 N (24) JÝ = JYY - JXY = 834,04 N – 4437,13 N = - 3603,09 N (25) I´X = - IXX - IYX = - 43769,66 N – 31,94 N = - 43737,72 N (26) IÝ = - IYY + IXY = - 189,06 N + 7395,26 N = 7206,2 N (27) G´X = GXX - GYX = 17507,89 N – 108,98 N = 17398,91 N (28) JÝ = - GYY - GXY = - 644,99 N – 2958,1 N = - 3603,09 N (29) Internal force effects for the member 7 are found out by a method of virtual section.

Figure 7 The loading scheme for the member 7(Source: Diploma Thesis, Chudý 2014)

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Virtual section:

0 ≤ x ≤ �

� (30)

N1 = J´X (31)

T1 = − JÝ (32)

M1= − JÝ∙ x1 (33)

�

� ≤ x2 ≤ l (34)

N2= J´X - I´X (35)

T2= JÝ + IÝ (36)

M2= IÝ∙ (x2 - �

� )- JÝ∙ x2 (37)

Substituting the known values into the formulas:

For x1= 0

N1 = 4578,05 N

T1 = 3603,09N

M1= 0

For x1 = �

� = 0,5 m

N1= 4578,05 N

T1= 3603,09 N

M1= 0

For x1 = l = 1 m

N2= 4578,05 N – 43737,72 =-39159,67 N

T2= - 3603,09 N + 7206,2 N = 3603,11 N

M2= 7206,2 N ∙ 0,5 m – 3606,09N ∙1 m = 0N ∙ m

77

Figure 8 The course of the internal force effects for the member 7 (Source: Diploma Thesis, Chudý 2014)

The force pattern of scissors arm is shown in Fig. 8, where the courses of bending moment, axial and shear force are presented. From the computed values, a minimum arm cross-section is determined in order to meet the strength conditions.

RESULTS The dimensioning of all constructional components meets the strength conditions. Owing to the solution versatility, use a roller conveyor in combination with a lifting scissor does not restrict its use only at sorting and handling a timber in the wood processing industry, but also in the other industries. In practice, more combined platforms arranged in series, parallel or a combination of both can be used and so the sorting equipment for a higher range of processed timber arises.

REFERENCES

1. CHUDÝ, A. (2014) Construction of scissor lift with roller conveyor. (In Slovak: Návrh kombinovanej nožnicovej plošiny s valčekovým dopravníkom). Diploma thesis. Technical university in Zvolen. Faculty of environmental and manufacturing Technology. Pp81. Supervisor: Mária Krajčovičová.

2. BEŇO, P. 2001. Časti a mechanizmy strojov. 1.vyd. Zvolen: Vydavateľstvo TU vo Zvolene, 2001. 390 s. ISBN 80-228-0985-3.

3. BINDER, R. – MARUČIN, J. 1976. Mechanika II. 1.vyd. Bratislava: ALFA, vydavateľstvo technickej a ekonomickej literatúry, n. p., 1976. 388 s.

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4. BODNÁR, F. 2008. Pružnosť a pevnosť I. 1.vyd. Zvolen: Vydavateľstvo TU vo Zvolene, 2008. 209 s. ISBN 978-80-228-1894-0.

5. GRYGAŘÍK, V. 2012. Nůžkový mechanizmus zdvíhací plošiny: Bakalárska práca. Brno: VUT Brno, 2012. 73 s.

6. VÁVRA, P. a kol. 1997. Strojnícke tabuľky pre SPŠ strojnícke. Bratislava. ISBN 80-88811-94-5.

7. https://books.google.sk/books?id=8FXeCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA109&dq=scissors+mechanism&hl=sk&sa=X&ved=0CEUQ6AEwBGoVChMI_I-B1fzIxwIVgqlyCh2k6AH1#v=onepage&q=scissors%20mechanism&f=false

8. https://books.google.sk/books?id=j2n1BCqxWjcC&pg=PA112&dq=scissors+mechanism&hl=sk&sa=X&ved=0CCcQ6AEwAGoVChMI_I-B1fzIxwIVgqlyCh2k6AH1#v=onepage&q=scissors%20mechanism&f=false

9. http://www.randj.sk/sortiment/nakladne-plosiny/>

Streszczenie: Analiza projektowa podnośnika nożycowego. Przy projektowaniu urządzenia transportowego, którego podstawowym zadaniem jest podnoszenie na określoną wysokość z następującym po tym ruchem zgodnym z założonymi parametrami, obliczenia statyczne są bardzo istotne. Wymiarowanie komponentów projektu odpowiada wymogom wytrzymałościowym. Elementy krytyczne są wyliczone dokładniej, w związku z przewidywanymi obciążeniami. W związku z uniwersalnoscią rozwiązania, zakres stosowania przenośnika rolkowego oraz podnośnika nożycowego nie jest ograniczony do przemysłu drzewnego, ale może być przeniesiony do innych jego gałęzi. W praktyce przemysłu drzewnego, łączenie urządzeń szeregowo, równolegle bądź w kombinacjach, pozwala zwiększyć przepustowość sortowni. Corresponding author: Name Surname: Mária Krajčovičová street address: T. G. Masaryka 2117/24 zip code, town, country: 96053 Zvolen. Slovakia email: [email protected] phone: +421 45 5206 575

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Neuheit beim Profilieren im Sägewerk

SŁAWOMIR KRZOSEK, PIOTR MAŃKOWSKI, JUSTYNA BIERNACKA

Fakultät für Holztechnologie, der Warschauer Naturwissenschaftliche Universität – SGGW

Abstract: Neuheit beim Profilieren im Sägewerk. In diesem Referat wird eine Neuheit aus dem Sägewerksbereich dargestellt. Der deutsche Werkzeugspezialist Leuco und der deutscher Sägewerksmaschinenhersteller EWD haben in Kooperation einen neuen Fräskopf für die Sägeindustrie entwickelt. Die neuen Fräsköpfe sind in Profilieraggregaten von Profilierlinien eingesetzt. Die neuen Werkzeuge werden gegen herkömmliche Fräsköpfe mit Hackschnitzelmessern und Schlichtsäge ausgetauscht. Sie haben viele Vorteile: Ungewöhnlich lange Standzeiten, sehr gute Oberfläche des bearbeitenden Holzes. Mit diesen Werkzeugen produziert man Spangranulat, das sich direkt zur Pelletsproduktion eignet.

Schlüsselwörter: Sägewerk, Profilieren, Fräskopf

Die Profiliertechnik ist die schnellste Einschnitttechnik im Sägewerk. In Großsägewerken, die Millionen fm pro Jahr schneiden, arbeiten ausschließlich die Profilierlinien. Die Profilierlinien finden Einsatz auch in Mittelgroßsägewerken. Die klassische Profilierlinie besteht aus folgender Maschinenkombination: zwei Spaner, zwei Mehrblattkreissägen und zwei Fräsaggregate. Das ist die einzige Sägetechnik, die die Produktion von besäumten Seitenbrettern ohne Besäumer ermöglicht. Die Funktion Besäumen realisieren die Profilieraggregate. Als Werkzeuge in diesen Aggregate arbeiten Profilierköpfe. Der typische Profilierkopf besteht aus Hackschnitzelmessern und einer Schlichtsäge. Ein Profilierkopf in Standardausführung wurde auf dem Bild 1 dargestellt. Beim Einsatz dieses Profilierkopfes, muss die Profilierlinie spätestens nach 60000 Laufmetern angehalten um die Werkzeuge zu wechseln.

Bild 1. Herkömmliche Fräskopf (fot. Krzosek)

Beim Einsatz dieser typischen Profilierköpfe können auf der Oberfläche des

bearbeitenden Holzes Ausrisse entstehen, besonders in Ästebereich. Die Ausrisse können auch die Hauptware beschädigen. Die beschädigten Seitenbretter so wie auch das Hauptmaterial muss man später tiefer hobeln. Das führt zu Materialverluste. Diesen Nachteil

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wollte man beseitigen. Im Jahre 2013 auf der Ligna wurden neue Eckenfräser präsentiert (Bild 2).

Bild 2. Neue Eckenfräser auf dem Stand von EWD auf der Ligna 2013 (fot. Krzosek)

Das war eine Entwicklung des deutschen Werkzeugspezialisten Leuco und des

deutschen Sägewerksanlagenherstellers EWD. Für diese Entwicklung hat Leuco zusammen mit EWD auf der Ligna 2013, am Neuheitensymposium den 3. Platz verliehen bekommen. Die neuen Eckenfräser arbeiten mit auswechselbaren Wendeschneidplatten, mit Hartmetallschneiden, die unter einem hohen Achswinkel von mehr als 55º montiert sind. Die Wendeschneidplatten sind auf einem Korpus eingeschraubt. Es gibt zwei Korpusgrößen. Die kleinere (leichtere) ist aus einem Stuck gefräst. Der größere Korpus ist aus austauschbaren Segmenten gebaut. Die Segmentierung erleichtert die Handhabung in der Maschine. Ein kompletter Stahlkopf wiegt 94 kg. Er ist ohne Kran ist nicht zu bewegen. Ein Segment wiegt 9 kg. Die einzelnen Segmente können relativ schnell händisch ausgewechselt werden. Der neue Fräskopf wird auf dem Bild 3 dargestellt.

Bild 3. Neue einteilige Fräskopf (fot. EWD)

Die erste Versuchsanlage wurde im September 2013 in Dold Holzwerke GmbH in

Buchenbach montiert. Sägewerk Dold schneidet mit Profiliertechnik 300000 fm pro Jahr in

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zwei Schichten und hat eine eigene Holzpelletsproduktion. Zunächst wurden zwei herkömmliche Profilierköpfe in einem Fräsaggregat FR15 durch neue Eckenfräser von Leuco ersetzt. Die Fräskopfe arbeiteten bei Vorschub 70 m/min. Jeder Fräskopf ist 120 mm hoch und ist in 160 spiralförmig angeordneten Schneideplatten ausgerüstet. Die Versuche waren zur Bearbeitung von allen üblichen Nadelhölzern wie Fichte, Tanne, Kiefer, Lärche und Douglasie gemacht. Auf der Ligna 2015 Firma EWD hat auf seinem Messestand in Hannover ein Fräsaggregat mit neuen Fräsköpfen ausgestellt (Bild 4). Die Anlage wurde an das Sägewerk AKD Associated Kiln Driers Pty Ltd, Irrewarra Mill, in Irrewarra, in Australien verkauft.

Bild 4. Neue Fräsköpfe in Fräsaggregat auf dem Stand von EWD auf der Ligna 2015 (fot. Krzosek)

Die neuen Eckenfräser haben viele Vorteile, davon die wichtigsten sind:

- sehr lange Standzeiten, - schnelles Werkzeugwechseln, - hochwertige, ausrissfreie Oberflächen, - entstehende Späne sind direkt für Pellets verwendbar.

Im Vergleich zu herkömmlichen Messern haben die neue Schneidplatten 10 bis 30 Mal längere Standzeiten. Das neue Werkzeug muss erst nach 2 Millionen Laufmetern geschnittenen Holzes zum ersten Mal angehalten werden und zwar nur zum Drehen der Schneidplatten. Eine Schneidplatte hat 4 Scheiden. Die Platte kann man 4 Mal um 90º drehen. Das bedeutet, dass man mit einer Schneidplatte mehr als 8 Millionen Laufmeter Holz profilieren kann. Falls das neue Werkzeug die segmentierte Konstruktion hat, dauert der Werkzeugwechsel nicht länger als bei den bisherigen Fräsköpfen. Die Segmente mit stumpfen Schneiden werden herausgeschraubt, die neuen eingeschraubt. Das Drehen der stumpfen Schneiden kann man bequem in Schärfraum machen, während die Anlage weiter läuft. In vielen Sägewerken verwendet man die Hackschnitzel zur Pellets Erzeugung. Die Hackschnitzel, die durch herkömmliche Fräsköpfe erzeugt sind, muss man nachzerkleinern. Die granulatähnlichen Späne, die der neue Eckenfräser erzeugt (kein Sägemehl, aber auch keine Hackschnitzel), können ohne weitere mechanische Zerkleinerung zu Pellets weiterverarbeitet werden. Die trocknen schnell und der Feinanteil ist gering. Die Hackschnitzel nach dem herkömmlichen und neuen Fräskopf wurden auf dem Bild 5 dargestellt.

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Bild 5. Hackschnitzen nach herkömmliche und neue Fräskopf (fot. EWD)

Der neue Fräskopf ist das nächste Beispiel wie groß Innovationspotential bei der Firma EWD ist, die nach magnetischen Blockbandsägeführungen (als Weltneuheit auf der Ligna 2011 gezeigt), zusammen mit Firma Leuco den neuen Fräskopf entwickelt hat. Es ist zu vermuten, dass in naher Zukunft weitere Innovationen und Neuheiten auch in Werkzeugbereich erscheinen werden. Die Maschinen sind schon auf so hohem technischem Niveau, dass es sehr schwer wird, die Maschinenkonstruktion wesentlich zu verbessern. Es ist auch zu betonen, dass heute die Neuheiten in Zusammenarbeit und Kooperation zwischen Industrie und Wissenschaft entstehen. LITERATUR:

1. Neuer Eckenfräser besticht. Holzkurier, Nr. 33, 16. 08. 2013 (Redaktionsartikel) 2. Ziehend Spanen statt Hacken. Holz-Zentrallblatt Nr. 4. 24. 01. 2014

(Redaktionsartikel) Internet (21. 06. 2015): www.leuco.com/leuco/cms/DE/DE/leuco/web/news?newsId=1000503237&newsKategorie=RUBRIK&newsSchlagwort=LEUCONEWS

Streszczenie: Nowość przy profilowaniu w tartaku. W referacie zaprezentowano nowość z zakresu tartacznictwa. Niemiecki producent narzędzi Leuco i niemiecki producent maszyn tartacznych EWD opracowali nowa głowicę frezującą dla branży tartacznej. Głowica ta znalazła zastosowanie w agregatach profilujących wchodzących w skład tartacznych linii profilujących. Nowe urządzenie, w porównaniu do tradycyjnej głowicy frezującej, składającej się z noży zrębkujących i gładzącej piły tarczowej, ma wiele zalet. Najważniejsze z nich to: bardzo długi czas pracy, bardzo dobra jakość powierzchni obrabianego drewna. Produkowany przez nowe narzędzie granulat drzewny nadaje się bezpośrednio do produkcji peletu. Corresponding authors: Sławomir Krzosek, Piotr Mańkowski, Justyna Biernacka, Wydział Technologii Drewna, Szkoła Główna Gospodarstwa Wiejskiego w Warszawie ul. Nowoursynowska 159, 02 – 776 Warszawa, e– mail: [email protected] e-mail: [email protected] e-mail: [email protected]

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Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW Forestry and Wood Technology № 93, 2016: 83-88 (Ann. WULS - SGGW, For. and Wood Technol. 93, 2016) Ultrasonic waves propagation velocity and dynamic modulus of elasticity

of European oak, European aspen, American cherry and wenge wood AGNIESZKA KUROWSKA, PAWEŁ KOZAKIEWICZ, TOMASZ GŁADZIKOWSKI Department of Wood Science and Wood Preservation, Faculty of Wood Technology, Warsaw University of Life Sciences - SGGW, 159 Nowoursynowska St., 02 - 776 Warsaw Abstract: Ultrasonic waves propagation velocity and dynamic modulus of elasticity of European oak, European

aspen, American cherry and wenge wood. In this work the propagation velocity of longitudinal ultrasonic waves and dynamic modulus of elasticity of selected species of hardwood of various anatomical structure and density were determined. The highest values of longitudinal ultrasonic waves velocity parallel and perpendicular to the grain and the dynamic modulus of elasticity parallel and perpendicular to the grain were noted for wenge, which is also characterised with the highest density. The properties tested perpendicular to the grain do not show such significant differences between wood species as parallel to the grain. The anisotropy of ultrasonic waves velocity is affected mostly by the type of wood structure, and thus its anatomic structure, and the anisotropy of the dynamic modulus of elasticity is affected mostly by wood density. Keywords: European oak, European aspen, American cherry, wenge, ultrasonic wave velocity, density, dynamic modulus INTRODUCTION Exotic wood species are often a substitute for domestic species. It is not only for aesthetic reasons but most of all for the various physical and mechanical properties of exotic wood (Kozakiewicz et at. 2008). In order to determine the suitability of exotic wood for production of resonant and soundproof materials, it is necessary to verify its acoustic properties. Wood as a solid medium is characterised with two basic types of sound waves: longitudinal waves (vibrations occur in parallel to the direction of waves propagation) and transverse waves (vibrations occur perpendicularly to the direction of waves propagation) (Kozakiewicz 2012). The ratio of the longitudinal waves velocity parallel to the grain to the waves velocity perpendicular to the grain is, on average, about 4.3; this value changes considerably depending on wood species (Kollmann 1951). Ultrasonic waves propagation velocity in wood is determined by wood density, modulus of elasticity, the length of uninterrupted internal structures, i.e. longitudinal crystalline areas of cellulose and radial rays (Baar et al. 2012) and wood moisture content (Bekhta et al. 2001). The value of longitudinal wave velocity for wood is in direct proportion to the value of the modulus of elasticity and the length of the uninterrupted internal structures but in reverse proportion to wood density (Krzysik 1974). Bucur et al. (1999) showed that the sound wave velocity is influenced by the content and distribution of non - structural components in wood. Huadong et al. (2014) tested in laboratory conditions the influence of wood anisotropy and the presence of drilled holes on the velocity and path of acoustic wave in poplar wood (Populus sp.). The acoustic waves velocity along the grain was 600% greater than in the radial direction. Drilling of holes changed significantly the time of waves propagation through the sample in the radial direction. After holes were drilled in the wood sample, an acoustic wave velocity was slower by about 30% in comparison to wood sample without drilled holes. Testing the dynamic shear modulus, Young’s modulus and sound velocity, Noguchi et al. (2012) compared in laboratory conditions samples from old (121-296 years old) wood with samples from young wood (8 years old) of Japanese red pine (Pinus

84

densiflora Siebold & Zucc.). Acoustic wave velocity in the old wood samples was higher even by 15% than in the young wood samples. Traorė et al. (2010) showed a strong correlation between the damping coefficient and the dynamic modulus of elasticity and the amount of extractives in Vėne wood (Pterocarpus erinaceus Poir.). It was observed that the damping coefficient value dropped by 20% while the modulus of elasticity increased by 14% and the content of extractives increased by 29%. In this work, tests of the ultrasonic waves propagation velocity and dynamic modulus of elasticity of European oak, European aspen, American cherry and wenge were tested in order to verify the properties of these wood species and their application as soundproof and resonant material. MATERIALS AND METHODS The wood species used in the tests included European oak (Quercus robur L.), European aspen (Populus tremula L.), American cherry (Prunus serotina Ehrh.) and wenge (Millettia laurentii De Wild.). The characteristics of the tested material are presented in table 1. Table 1. Basic information about investigated wood species English trade name of wood (and code) according to EN-13556:2003

Latin name Family Origin Structure of wood

American cherry (PRSR)

Prunus serotina Ehrh.

Rosaceae North America hardwood semi-ring-porous

European aspen (POTL)

Populus tremula L. Salicaceae Europe hardwood diffuse-porous

European oak (QCXE)

Quercus robur L. Fagaceae Europe hardwood ring-porous

wenge (MTLR)

Millettia laurentii

De Wild. Fabaceae -

Faboideae

Africa hardwood diffuse-porous

After conditioning of the samples to air - dried state, wood moisture content was determined in accordance with ISO 13061-1:2014, and its density was determined in accordance with ISO 13061-2:2014. Longitudinal waves velocity and the dynamic modulus of elasticity were tested using the non - destructive ultrasonic method. In the tests based on the method of ultrasounds transmission, ultrasonic defectoscopy equipment was used. A wood samples 500 mm (longitudinal) x 300 (tangential) mm x 40 mm (radial) were used. Determination of longitudinal wave velocity was performed parallel and perpendicular to the grain using the transmission method. Two cylindrical ultrasonic heads were used (40 kHz, 40 mm): one transmitting and one receiving. The points of contact of the heads in each direction were at even distances apart. The equipment was calibrated to the following parameters: amplification 40 dB, the release level 2, wave energy (voltage) 60 V, time of delay 9.0 μs and impulsive mode during transmission 12 Hz. Polyacrylate gel was used as the coupling substance (between the face of the ultrasonic heads and wood samples). Reading the time of the main echo (t), the velocity of tangential waves parallel to the grain was determined first, and next was the modulus of elasticity of wood. The following formulae were used: ▪ velocity of longitudinal ultrasonic waves:

85

where: ν – velocity of longitudinal ultrasonic waves [m∙s-1], l – sample length [m], t – longitudinal wave propagation time (t = tm – to ) [s], tm – measured time of ultrasonic wave [s] to – time of delay [s] ▪ dynamic modulus of elasticity:

where: EII – dynamic modulus of elasticity [GPa], ν – velocity of longitudinal ultrasonic waves [m∙s-1], ρw – density of wood [kg∙m-³], μo – reduced Poisson’s ratio (μo = 0,3) [-]. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The tests show that the moisture content of the wood samples was within 8 - 10% (typical moisture content of wood used for indoor applications in temperate climate in Central European lowlands) (Kozakiewicz and Matejak 2013). The density of the tested European oak wood (646 kg∙m-3) and the density of American cherry (569 kg∙m-3) were typical and located within the range of density reported in the literature (Krzysik 1974). Wenge wood was characterised with a density of 891 kg∙m-3, i.e. 13% higher than the range reported in the literature (Jankowska et al. 2012). European aspen wood was characterised with a density of 391 kg∙m-3, i.e. 10% lower than the value reported in the literature (Krzysik 1974).

Figure 1. Ultrasonic waves velocity of investigated wood species (standard deviations in parentheses) The velocity of the longitudinal waves perpendicular to the grain of the tested wood species was from 1157 to 1231 m∙s-1. The velocity of the longitudinal waves parallel to the grain was from 4122 to 5524 m∙s-1 (Fig. 1). The highest values of longitudinal waves velocity, both parallel and perpendicular to the grain, were recorded for wenge wood. The values obtained in the tests for ultrasonic waves velocities in oak were corresponding to the values provided by Kollmann (1951), i.e.: 1193 m∙s-1 across the grain and 4304 m∙s-1 along the grain.

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According to the data found in the literature, the wood which is characterised with values of longitudinal wave velocity perpendicular to the grain closest to those of wenge is merbau (Baar et al. 2012). The density of merbau (814 kg∙m-3) is close to that of wenge.

The values of ultrasonic wave velocity perpendicular to the grain are less diversified among the tested wood species compared to ultrasonic waves velocities parallel to the grain. For example, the wave velocity perpendicular to the grain of oak wood is about 94% (and 74% parallel to the grain) of the analogical wave velocity for wenge wood. The ratios of longitudinal wave velocities parallel to the grain to the wave velocities perpendicular to the grain of European oak, European aspen, American cherry and wenge are respectively 3.55, 4.48, 4.67 and 4.49. A factor affecting these values is the type of wood anatomy. The ring - porous hardwood of European oak, with wide rays, shows much lower anisotropy in ultrasonic waves velocities in comparison to diffuse-porous hardwoods.

Figure 2. Dynamic modulus of elasticity of investigated wood species (standard deviations in parentheses) The differences between wood species in the values of dynamic modulus of elasticity determined using the ultrasonic method are significant. The dynamic modulus of elasticity perpendicular to the grain of the tested wood species was within the range of 680 do 1030 MPa, while the dynamic modulus of elasticity parallel to the grain was within the range of 8152 do 20194 MPa (Fig. 2). The lowest modulus of elasticity, both parallel and perpendicular to the grain, was recorded for European aspen wood (445 i 7921 MPa). The highest modulus of elasticity parallel and perpendicular to the grain was recorded for wenge. The ratio of the dynamic modulus of elasticity parallel to the grain to the dynamic modulus of elasticity perpendicular to the grain was: 12.0 for European oak, 17.8 for European aspen, 21.1 for American cherry and 19.6 for wenge. From the tested wood species, wenge has beneficial properties for potential use as a resonant material. CONCLUSIONS It is concluded from the performed tests of European oak, European aspen, American cherry and wenge that the properties which affect ultrasonic waves velocity and the dynamic modulus of elasticity are wood density and its anatomical structure. The highest values of longitudinal ultrasonic waves parallel and perpendicular to the grain and the dynamic modulus of elasticity parallel and perpendicular to the grain were noted for wenge, which is characterised also with the highest density. The properties tested perpendicular to the grain

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do not show such significant differences between wood species as parallel to the grain. The anisotropy of ultrasonic wave velocity is affected mostly by the type of wood structure and, thus its anatomic structure, and the anisotropy of the dynamic modulus of elasticity is affected mostly by wood density. REFERENCES

1. BAAR J., TIPPNER J., GRYC V., 2012: The influence of wood density on longitudinal wave velocity determined by the ultrasound method in comparison to the resonance longitudinal method, European Journal of Wood and Wood Products 70 (5); 767-769

2. BEKHTA P., CHOPYK Y., KOZAKIEWICZ P., 2001: Determination of wood moisture content by ultrasoud metod, Annals of Warsaw Agricultural University. Forestry and Wood Technology 51; 13-18

3. BUCUR V., CLÉMENT A., BITSCH M., HOUSSEMENT C., 1999: Acoustic properties of resonance wood and distribution of inorganic components of the cell wall, Holz als Roh- und Werkstoff 57; 103-104

4. EN 13556:2003 Round and sawn timber – Nomenclature of timbers used in Europe 5. HUADONG X., GUOQI X., LIHAI W., LEI Y., 2014: Propagation behaviour of

acoustic wave in wood, Journal of Forestry Research 25 (3): 671-676 6. ISO 13061-1:2014 Physical and mechanical properties of wood – Test methods for

small clear wood specimens – Part 1: Determination of moisture content for physical and mechanical tests

7. ISO 13061-2:2014 Physical and mechanical properties of wood – Test methods for small clear wood specimens – Part 2: Determination of density for physical and mechanical tests

8. JANKOWSKA A., KOZAKIEWICZ P., SZCZĘSNA M., 2012: Drewno egzotyczne. Rozpoznawanie. Właściwości. Zastosowanie, Wydawnictwo SGGW, Warszawa

9. KOLLMANN F., 1951: Technologie des Holzes und der Holzwerkstoffe. Springer-Verlag., Berlin-Göttingen-Geidelberg, J.F. Bergmann, München

10. KOZAKIEWICZ P., KOŚCIELNIAK C., ZAKRZEWSKA-RUDZIŃSKA W., 2008: Badania właściwości i innowacyjne zastosowania drewna egzotycznego w Polsce, Przemysł Drzewny 4; 18-23

11. KOZAKIEWICZ P., 2012: Fizyka drewna w teorii i zadaniach. Wydawnictwo SGGW, Warszawa

12. KOZAKIEWICZ P., MATEJAK M., 2013: Klimat a drewno - dawna i współczesna wiedza o drewnie, Wydanie IV zmienione, Wydawnictwo SGGW, Warszawa

13. KRZYSIK F., 1974: Nauka o drewnie, Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, Warszawa

14. NOGUCHI T., OBATAYA E., ANDO K., 2012: Effects of aging on the vibrational properties of wood, Journal of Cultural Heritage 13 (3); 21-25

15. TRAORĖ B., BRANCHERIAU L., PERRĖ P., STEVANOVIC T., DIOUF P., 2010: Acoustic quality of vène wood (Pterocarpus erinaceus Poir.) for xylophone instrument manufacture in Mali, Annals of Forest Science 67 (8); 815

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Streszczenie: Prędkość rozchodzenia fal ultradźwiękowych i dynamiczny moduł sprężystości

drewna dębu, topoli osiki, czeremchy amerykańskiej i wenge. W pracy określono prędkość rozchodzenia się podłużnej fali ultradźwiękowej oraz dynamiczny moduł sprężystości wybranych gatunków liściastych o zróżnicowanej budowie anatomicznej i gęstości. Największą wartość prędkości fal podłużnych wzdłuż i w poprzek włókien oraz dynamicznego modułu sprężystości wzdłuż i w poprzek włókien odnotowano dla rozpierzchło naczyniowego drewna wenge ze strefy klimatu tropikalnego, charakteryzującego się również największą gęstością. Badane cechy w poprzek włókien, nie wykazują tak znaczących różnic między gatunkami drewna jak badane wzdłuż włókien. W czterech analizowanych liściastych gatunkach drewna na anizotropię prędkości fal ultradźwiękowych ma wpływ przede wszystkim typ struktury drewna i związana z tym budowa anatomiczna, a na anizotropię dynamicznego modułu sprężystości wpływa przede wszystkim gęstość drewna. Corresponding author: Agnieszka Kurowska Department of Wood Sciences and Wood Preservation Faculty of Wood Technology Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW 159 Nowoursynowska St. 02-776 Warsaw, Poland email: [email protected] http://agnieszka-kurowska.pl phone: +48 22 59 38 661 Paweł Kozakiewicz Department of Wood Sciences and Wood Preservation Faculty of Wood Technology Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW 159 Nowoursynowska St. 02-776 Warsaw, Poland email: [email protected] http://pawel_kozakiewicz.users.sggw.pl phone: +48 22 59 38 647

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Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW Forestry and Wood Technology № 93, 2016: 89-93 (Ann. WULS - SGGW, For. and Wood Technol. 93, 2016) Determination of the wettability of gaboon wood (Aucoumea klaineana

Pierre) AGNIESZKA KUROWSKA, PAWEŁ KOZAKIEWICZ Department of Wood Science and Wood Preservation, Faculty of Wood Technology, Warsaw University of Life Sciences - SGGW, 159 Nowoursynowska St., 02-776 Warsaw Abstract: Determination of the wettability of gaboon wood (Aucoumea klaineana Pierre). The examined gaboon wood is used in European countries mostly for the production of plywood, windows and elevations. In this work, the wettability of gaboon wood was determined on the basis of the sessile drop method, using wood contact angle measurement with water and diiodomethane. The characteristics determined were the surface free energy for wood, wetting energy, spreading coefficient, work of adhesion and surface tension for the wood - water and wood - diiodomethane structure. The course of the wettability process, particularly in case of polar liquid (water), demonstrates significant dynamics. Satisfactory stabilization of the process occurs after about 30 sec from placing a droplet, and this time should be considered optimal. The presence of striped and irregular grain translates into an increase of the changeability of the tested surface wettability indicators. Key words: gaboon, wettability, contact angle, wetting energy, work of adhesion, surface tension INTRODUCTION Gaboon wood (also known as okume or okoumé, according to EN 13556:2003) comes from Central Africa, with main area of acquisition in Gabon (i.e. 90% of the gaboon wood available on the market). Due to its high dimensional stability, gaboon wood is commonly used in European countries for the production of plywood, window joinery and elements of elevations (Galewski and Korzeniowski 1958, Bartowski 2005, Kozakiewicz 2007), but also for veneer cutting (BN-74/7112-05:1974, PN-D-97004:1999). In case of the use of gaboon wood, not only basic characteristics such as density and natural durability (provided in EN 350-2:1994) or shrinkage and mechanical properties (described by Wagenführ 2007) are important but also its surface characteristics, especially wettability. Physicochemical parameters of the surface directly affect its interaction with water and the dynamics of the soaking process, thus determining significant usability characteristics. Moreover, wood surface characteristics influence the process of gluing, impregnation and finishing. One of the fundamental tools for describing physico-chemical properties of a solid object surface is the wetting angle, formed by the surface of the object and the line tangent to a droplet surface at the point of contact of the phases (e.g. water droplet surface). A smaller value of the wetting angle points to a better surface wettability. According to the research carried out so far, if the wetting angle is greater than 90°, the liquid does not wet the surface of a solid object; and if the angle is less than 90°, intensive wetting of the surface by the liquid occurs. Also a change of the wetting angle value within a predetermined time is important (Owens and Wendt 1969, Liptakova and Kúdela 1994, Huang et al. 2012, Kúdela 2014). The purpose of these tests was to determine selected parameters (i.e. wetting angle, surface free energy, wetting energy, spreading coefficient, work of adhesion and surface tension) and physico-chemical properties of gaboon wood (Aucoumea klaineana Pierre).

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MATERIAL AND METHODS Gaboon wood (Aucoumea klaineana Pierre) was used in the tests. Wood samples (dimensions of 135x135x15 mm) were cut along the main anatomic sections so that tangential section (i.e. the section most commonly used in finished products) was on the broad surfaces. The samples surfaces were finished by slicing. After conditioning of the samples to air-dried state, wood moisture content was determined in accordance with ISO 13061-1:2014, and its density was determined in accordance with ISO 13061-2:2014. Using the sessile drop method, the contact angles of wood wetted with reference liquids were tested in a Phoenix 300 goniometer manufactured by Surface Electro Optics. Water and diiodomethane were used in the tests as reference liquids. Wetting energy was determined, as well as the spreading coefficient, work of adhesion and surface tension for the structure of wood - water and wood - diiodomethane. On the basis of tests carried out using the Owens-Wendt method (Owens and Wendt 1969), wood surface free energy was determined. The values of the parameters characterising wood wettability were determined after 1, 2, 3, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 and 60 sec from placing a droplet of a reference liquid onto wood surface. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Gaboon wood was characterised with an average density of 378 kg·m-3 (standard deviation of 3 kg·m-3) and moisture content of 9.6% (standard deviation of 0.4%). The obtained density of the tested wood is relatively low, close to the bottom value of the scope of density variability for this wood species in air-dried state given in the literature, i.e. 380 – 440 – 530 kg·m-3 (Galewski and Korzeniowski 1958, Kozakiewicz 2007, Wagenführ 2007). Table 1 and picture 1 present the results of the wettability tests. Table 1. Selected properties of the structure gaboon wood - water, gaboon wood - diiodomethane (standard deviation in parentheses)

Properties Time [s] 1 2 3 10 20 30 40 50 60

Contact angle [o] wood - water 65(4) 61(5) 59(6) 52(6) 47(5) 45(5) 43(5) 40(5) 40(4)

wood - diiodomethane 29(1) 29(1) 29(1) 28(2) 27(1) 26(1) 26(1) 26(1) 26(2)

Wetting energy [mN·m-1] wood - water 31(5) 35(5) 37(6) 44(6) 49(5) 52(5) 53(4) 54(4) 55(3)


Spreading coefficient [mN·m-1] wood - water 42(5) 38(5) 36(6) 28(6) 23(5) 21(5) 19(4) 18(4) 17(3)


Work of adhesion [mN·m-1] wood - water 104(5) 108(5) 110(6) 117(6) 122(5) 125(5) 126(4) 127(4) 128(3)


Surface tension [mN·m-1] wood - water - 14(2) 15(2) 18(2) 20(2) 23(2) 22(4) 23(4) 23(4)

wood - diiodomethane - 10(1) 11(1) 11(1) 12(1) 12(1) 12(1) 12(1) 12(2)

Considering the number of variables which affect wood wettability, the time after which the contact angle should be determined has not been specified. Liptáková and Kúdela (1994) and Kúdela (2014) determined the contact angle after separation of a liquid droplet from a needle (t = 0) and the equilibrium contact angle. Huang et al. (2012) differentiated the time for determining the contact angle for Jack pine (Pinus banksiana Lamb.) depending on the type of the reference liquid.

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In the case of the tested gaboon wood, the parameters changed substantially within the selected time span of 60 sec, where the changes had the character of an exponential function (the changes were occurring the fastest in the first seconds of the test). Satisfactory stabilization of the tested wettability properties can be observed after about 30 sec from placing a droplet of polar liquid, especially of water. This time should be considered as optimal in case of a single measurement of properties connected with gaboon wood wettability, without observation of the process dynamics. The average wettability parameters 30 sec after placing a droplet of water onto the surface of gaboon wood, were the following: contact angle 45o, wetting energy 52 mN/m-1, spreading coefficient 21 mN·m-1, work of adhesion 125 mN·m-1 and surface tension 23 mN·m-1. In case of dispersive liquid (30 sec after the placement of a diiodomethane droplet) the sizes of the contact angle and the surface tension were about twice smaller, and the spreading coefficient almost three times lower, while the wetting energy and the work of adhesion were greater by about 10 mN·m-1. High fibre saturation point of 40% (Kozakiewicz 2007) and easy saturation with protective agents (EN 350-2:1994) points to the open structure and hydrophilic properties of gaboon wood, which was confirmed by the aforementioned results of surface wettability tests. Gaboon wood has the structure of a diffuse-porous hardwood from the tropical climate zone. The vessels are placed evenly, individually or in commonly short (2-3 vessels) radial rows. The vessels diameter is on average about 0.22 mm. The vessels have poor parenchyma in the form of a single layer of surrounding cells. Also there are radial, fine, 1-cell wide apotracheal parenchyma bands. The elements dominating in the structure are thin-walled, multifaceted fibres (even over 70%). Their average diameter is 0.015 mm and length is 0.9 mm. Rays are narrow and mostly 2- cells wide, less often 1- or 3- cells high. The rays constitute about 12% (Kozakiewicz 2007). These properties show the homogeneity of gaboon wood which is macroscopically disturbed at particular anatomic sections by the presence of striped and irregular grain (Kozakiewicz 2007, Wagenführ 2007). It is the non-linear arrangement of fibres that caused the increase of the standard deviations of the properties recorded during testing.

Figure 1. Surface free energy, polar and dispersion components

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Figure 1 presents curves which show the variables during the time of surface free energy, also presenting the polar and the dispersion components separately. The obtained results show that the dominating ingredient, and also more changeable in time, is the energy from the polar liquid (water). CONCLUSIONS On the basis of the performed tests of surface wettability of gaboon wood (Aucoumea

klaineana Pierre), the following conclusions were drawn: 1. The course of the wettability process, particularly in case of polar liquid (water),

demonstrates significant dynamics. Satisfactory stabilization of the process occurs after about 30 sec from the placing of a droplet and this time should be considered optimal.

2. On the tangential section, 30 sec after the placement of a droplet of polar liquid (water), the average contact angle is 45o, wetting energy is 52 mN·m-1 and work of adhesion is 125 mN·m-1, and for diiodomethane these are, respectively, 26 o, 65 mN·m-1 and 138 mN·m-1.

3. The natural presence of stripped and irregular grain, despite of the homogeneous microscopic structure, translates into an increase of the changeability of the tested surface wettability indicators.

4. The dominating component, and also the more changeable during the time of determining surface free energy, is the energy from the polar liquid (water).

REFERENCES

1. BARTOWSKI J.W., 2005: Tropikalne drewno użytkowe (3), Okno 2 (41); 97-103 2. BN-74/7112-05:1974 Okleiny z drewna egzotycznego

3. EN 350-2:1994 Durability of wood and wood-based products – Natural durability of solid wood – Part 2: Guide to natural durability and treatability of selected wood species of importance in Europe

4. EN 13556:2003 Round and sawn timber – Nomenclature of timbers used in Europe 5. GALEWSKI W., KORZENIOWSKI A., 1958: Atlas najważniejszych gatunków

drewna, PWRiL, Warszawa 6. HUANG X., KOCAEFE D., BOLUK Y., KOCAEFE Y., PICHETTE A., 2012: Effect

of surface preparation on the wettability of heat-treated jack pine wood surface by different liquids, European Journal of Wood and Wood Products 70: 711-717

7. ISO 13061-1:2014 Physical and mechanical properties of wood – Test methods for small clear wood specimens – Part 1: Determination of moisture content for physical and mechanical tests


9. KOZAKIEWICZ P., 2007: Okume (Aucoumea klaineana Pierre) – drewno egzotyczne z Afryki, Przemysł Drzewny 7-8; 69-72

10. KÚDELA J., 2014: Wetting of wood surface by a liquids of a different polarity, Wood Research 59 (1): 11-24

11. LIPTÁKOVA E., KÚDELA J., 1994: Analysis of the wood - wetting process, Holzforschung 48 (2): 139-144

12. OWENS D.K., WENDT R.C., 1969: Estimation of the surface free energy of polymers, Journal of Applied Polymer Science 13 (8): 1741-1747

13. PN-D-97004:1999 Okleiny z drewna pochodzącego z tropikalnej strefy klimatycznej

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14. WAGENFÜHR R., 2007: Holzatlas.6., neu bearbeitete und erweitere Auflage. Mit zahlreichen Abbildungen. Fachbuchverlag Leipzig im Carl Hanser Verlag

Streszczenie: Wyznaczenie zwilżalności drewna okume (Aucoumea klaineana Pierre). Drewno okume (ang. gaboon wood) stosowane jest w krajach europejskich głównie do produkcji sklejki, okien i elementów elewacyjnych. W pracy określono zwilżalność drewna okume poprzez pomiar kąta zwilżania drewna wodą i dijodometanem na podstawie metody "osadzonej" kropli. Wyznaczono swobodną energię powierzchniową drewna, a także energię zwilżania, współczynnik rozpływu, pracę adhezji i napięcie powierzchniowe dla układu drewno – woda oraz drewno - dijodometan. Przebieg procesu zwilżania, w szczególności cieczą polarną (wodą), wykazuje znaczną dynamikę. Zadawalająca stabilizacja procesu następuje po ok. 30 s od „osadzenia” kropli i czas ten należy uznać za optymalny do dokonania pomiaru. Obecność w drewnie okume pasiastego i gniazdowego układu włókien przekłada się na zwiększenie zmienności badanych wskaźników zwilżalności powierzchni. Corresponding authors: Agnieszka Kurowska Department of Wood Sciences and Wood Preservation Faculty of Wood Technology Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW 159 Nowoursynowska St. 02-776 Warsaw, Poland email: [email protected] phone: +48 22 59 38 661 Paweł Kozakiewicz Department of Wood Sciences and Wood Preservation Faculty of Wood Technology Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW 159 Nowoursynowska St. 02-776 Warsaw, Poland email: [email protected] http://pawel_kozakiewicz.users.sggw.pl phone: +48 22 59 38 647

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Influence of ultraviolet radiation on colour of European ash sapwood

and heartwood (Fraxinus excelsior L.) AGNIESZKA KUROWSKA, PAWEŁ KOZAKIEWICZ Department of Wood Science and Wood Preservation, Faculty of Wood Technology, Warsaw University of Life Sciences - SGGW, 159 Nowoursynowska St., 02-776 Warsaw Abstract: Influence of ultraviolet radiation on colour of European ash sapwood and heartwood (Fraxinus excelsior L.). This paper examines the influence of ultraviolet radiation on the colour of ash wood, used principally as flooring material or in veneer and furniture manufacturing. The colour parameters were determined using the CIE L*a*b* and CIE L*C*h colour space model. The research results show a small decrease in wood lightness, by 7% in sapwood, and by 5% in heartwood, after 300 h exposure to radiation. Material change towards yellow was, however, observed in the colour of in both sapwood and heartwood. After 300 h exposure, the b* parameter increased 2 and 1.5 times for ash sapwood and heartwood, respectively. The highest total colour difference in ash sapwood and heartwood was observed after 20 h exposure. The total colour difference as a result of ultraviolet radiation was nearly twice as high in sapwood as it was in heartwood. Keywords: ultraviolet radiation, colour, lightness, sapwood, heartwood, ash wood INTRODUCTION Colour is an important characteristic which affects the aesthetic value of wood as well as its usability. Wood colour depends on many factors, among other from its species, moisture content, type of protective coating applied, as well as the conditions and period of use. When the impact of biotic factors and direct influence of atmospheric conditions are reduced, the colour of wood is principally affected by the time of its exposure to ultraviolet radiation (Sharratt et al. 2009, Huang et al. 2012). European ash (Fraxinus excelsior L.) is a rapid-growing tree. This widely occurring plant is one of the most important tree species in Europe (Gill et al. 2010), and its wood had (Galewski and Korzeniowski 1958) and still has major economic significance (EN 13566:2003, Kozakiewicz et al. 2012). The wood texture is made of distinctly outlined annual rings highlighted by rings of large vessels. The ash appears to have aggregate sapwood because of a wide layer of uncoloured heartwood situated between its narrow creamy white sapwood and coloured light brown heartwood (Wagenführ 2007, Kozakiewicz et al. 2012). Because of its excellent elastic properties and distinctive texture, ash wood is frequently used for flooring material and furniture fronts, where its colour stability is an issue of material importance (Kozakiewicz et al. 2012). Changes in wood colour were the subject of many research papers. The issues addressed were the influence of atmospheric conditions (Jankowska et al. 2011), the impact of the drying process (Straze et al. 2003), thermal modification (Bekhta et al. 2014), or surface finishing methods (Kozakiewicz et al. 2012). These papers, however, lacked quantitative information on the influence of ultraviolet radiation on the intensity of colour change in natural ash wood. The aim of this research was to determine the influence of artificial ultraviolet radiation (the crucial component of artificial lighting) on the colour of sapwood and heartwood of the European ash (Fraxinus excelsior L.).

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MATERIALS AND METHODS Ash (Fraxinus excelsior L.) sapwood and heartwood were used for the tests. The broad surfaces of the samples were characterised by tangential - radial section. Sample surfaces were finished by planing. The samples having been brought to air drying condition, wood moisture content was determined in accordance with ISO 13061-1:2014. Wood density was determined by using the stereometric method according to ISO 13061-2:2014. The ash wood moisture amounted to 8.34% (± 0.62%). Ash sapwood density was 611 kg/m3 (± 8 kg/m3), whereas ash heartwood density was 659 kg/m3 (± 12 kg/m3). The wood samples were exposed to ultraviolet radiation. Four fluorescent lamps of 100 W each were used for the purpose; their spectrum range was 300 to 400 nm where 90% of the radiation had the spectrum of wavelength 340 to 360 nm. Ultraviolet radiation causes the greatest changes in the appearance and structure of organic materials. The wood samples were exposed to radiation for 300 hours, and the colour parameters were determined after every 20 hours of exposure. The colour parameters were stated by using mathematical colour space model CIE L*a*b* and CIE L*C*h. The following parameters were measured: lightness (L*), chromatic coordinate on the red - green axis (a*), chromatic coordinate on the yellow - blue axis (b*), chroma (C*), and hue angle (h) before and after the exposure, as well as the colour difference ΔE according to ISO 7724-3:2003. Trend lines were drawn, parameters of curve equation (y) were given, as well as determination coefficients r2, for the wood colour values. The colour parameters were measured by using an NH300 colorimeter manufactured by 3nh company. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The results of the research are presented in figures 1 and 2. Organoleptic observation revealed noticeable colour changes on the surface of the ash wood exposed to UV radiation. a). L* b). a*

c). b* d). ΔE

Figure 1. Colour parameters and total colour difference (ΔE) of European ash wood (curve equation yS for sapwood, yH for heartwood)

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The test results showed that the course of changes in ash wood lightness under the influence of ultraviolet radiation was linear (Fig. 1a). After 300 h exposure the sapwood lightness decreased from 82.14 to 76.20 (drop by 7%) whereas the heartwood lightness decreased from 74.06 to 70.15 (drop by 5%). Changes in other colour components were likewise observed. Analysis of changes in the chromatic coordinate on the red - green axis (a*) revealed that the sapwood changed its colour towards red (change in a* parameter from 6.18 to 10.77). In the case of heartwood no significant change in a* parameter was observed (increase from 9.46 to 10.60) (Fig. 1b). However, material changes were found in the values of the chromatic coordinate on the yellow - blue axis (b*). Under the influence of ultraviolet radiation the ash sapwood and heartwood showed changes towards the yellow colour. After 300 h exposure, the b* parameter increased 2 and 1.5 times for sapwood and heartwood, respectively (Fig. 1c). The reasons for the colour change to yellow ought to be sought in the photochemistry of the wood structural components. The yellowing of wood is brought about chiefly by the lignin and its derivatives, i.e. quinones and stilbenes (Bekhta et al. 2014). The presence of starch in sapwood, but not in heartwood, and generally higher content of various non - structural components may also have contributed to the intensity of colour change (Bamford and Van Rest 1930). The progress of total colour difference (ΔE) in sapwood and heartwood was logarithmic. The largest total colour difference, both in sapwood and heartwood, was observed after 20 h of exposure (sapwood ΔE 7.67, heartwood 3.31). After 300 h exposure the sapwood ΔE rose to 17.81 and the heartwood ΔE rose to 9.68 (Fig. 1d). Consequently, the total colour change caused by ultraviolet radiation in sapwood exceeded nearly twice the total colour change in heartwood. This resulted most probably from different chemical structures of sapwood and heartwood. In accordance with the five - degree colour durability scale proposed by Mielicki (1997), ash sapwood belongs to class 1 and heartwood to class 1 - 2 (wood of very low and low colour stability with regard to UV radiation). a). C* b). h

Figure 2. Chroma (C*) and hue angle (h) of European ash wood The chroma of sapwood showed higher dynamics of change under the influence of ultraviolet radiation than the chroma of heartwood. After 300 h exposure the C* parameter was observed to have increased nearly 2 and 1.5 times for sapwood and heartwood, respectively (Fig. 2a). No material dependence was observed between the period of wood exposure and the change in hue angle. The h parameter changed from 70.22 to 71.43 for sapwood, and from 63.38 to 68.96 for heartwood after 300 h exposure (Fig. 2b).

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CONCLUSIONS 1. Ultraviolet radiation makes ash wood darken. The research results show a small decrease

in wood lightness, by 7% in sapwood, and by 5% in heartwood, after 300 h exposure to radiation.

2. Under the influence of ultraviolet radiation ash wood turns perceptibly yellow. After 300 h exposure, the b* parameter (a shift towards the yellow colour) increased 2 and 1.5 times for ash sapwood and heartwood, respectively.

3. The highest total colour difference in ash sapwood and heartwood was observed after 20 h exposure. The total colour change caused by ultraviolet radiation in sapwood exceeded nearly twice the total colour change in heartwood.

4. Ash wood (especially sapwood) is characterised by low colour stability to ultraviolet radiation.

REFERENCES

1. BAMFORD K.F., VAN REST E.D., 1930: The relationship between chemical composition and mechanical strength in the wood of English ash (Fraxinus excelsior Linn.). Biochem Journal 1936 October 30 (10): 1849–1854.

2. BEKHTA P., PROSZYK S., KRYSTOFIAK T., 2014: Colour in short term thermo-mechanically densified veneer of various wood species, European Journal of Wood and Wood Products 72 (6); 785-797.

3. EN 13566:2003 Round and sawn timber – Nomenclature of timbers used in Europe. 4. GALEWSKI W., KORZENIOWSKI A., 1958: Atlas najważniejszych gatunków

drewna. Państwowe Wydawnictwo Rolnicze i Leśne. 5. GIL W., ŁUKASZEWICZ J., PALUCH R., ZACHARA T., 2010: Jesion wyniosły.

Hodowla i zagrożenia. Państwowe Wydawnictwo Rolnicze i Leśne. Warszawa. 6. HUANG X., KOCAEFE D., BOLUK Y., KOCAEFE Y., PICHETTE A., 2012: Effect

of surface preparation on the wettability of heat-treated jack pine wood surface by different liquids, European Journal of Wood and Wood Products 70 (5); 711-717.

7. ISO 7724-3:2003 Paints and varnishes. Colorimetry. Part 3: Calculation of colour differences

8. ISO 13061-1:2014 Physical and mechanical properties of wood – Test methods for small clear wood specimens – Part 1: Determination of moisture content for physical and mechanical tests.

9. ISO 13061-2:2014 Physical and mechanical properties of wood – Test methods for small clear wood specimens – Part 2: Determination of density for physical and mechanical tests.

10. JANKOWSKA A., KOZAKIEWICZ P., SZCZĘSNA M., 2011: Changes of color wood Tectona grandis L., Intsia sp., Koompassia malaccensis Maing. ex Benth. caused by coatings and light action. Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW, Forestry and Wood Technology No 74, s.120-124.

11. KOZAKIEWICZ P., NOSKOWIAK A., PIÓRO P., 2012: Atlas drewna podłogowego. Wydanie I. Wydawnictwo „Profi-Press” Sp. z o.o. Warszwa.

12. MIELICKI J., 1997: Zarys wiadomości o barwie. Wyd. Fundacja Rozwoju Polskiej Kolorystyki, Łódź.

13. SHARRATT V., HILL C.A.S., KINT D.P.R., 2009: Study of early colour change due to simulated accelerated sunlight exposure in Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris), Polymer Degradation and Stability 94: 1589-1594.

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14. STRAZE A., OVEN P. ZUPANCIC M. GORISEK Z., 2003: Colour Changes of Ash-wood (Fraxinus excelsior L.) during Conventional Drying. 8th International IUFRO Wood Drying Conference – 2003: 465-469.

15. WAGENFÜHR R., 2007: Holzatlas.6., neu bearbeitete und erweitere Auflage. Mit zahlreichen Abbildungen. Fachbuchverlag Leipzig im Carl Hanser Verlag.

Streszczenie: Wpływ promieniowania ultrafioletowego na barwę drewna bielu i twardzieli

jesionu wyniosłego (Fraxinus excelsior L.). W pracy zbadano wpływ promieniowania ultrafioletowego na barwę drewna jesionu stosowanego głównie jako materiał podłogowy oraz do produkcji oklein i mebli. Parametry barwy zostały określone przy użyciu modeli CIE L*a*b* i CIE L*C*h. Z przeprowadzonych badań wynika, że promieniowanie ultrafioletowe w istotny sposób wpływa na zmianę barwy drewna bielu i twardzieli jesionu. Po 300 h naświetlania całkowita zmiana barwy drewna bielu była niemal 2 - krotnie większa od całkowitej zmiany barwy drewna twardzieli. Analogiczne zależności odnotowano w przypadku zmiany nasycenia barwy drewna. Pod wpływem promieniowania ultrafioletowego drewno bielu i twardzieli wykazało zmianę w kierunku barwy żółtej. Ponadto, drewno bielu wykazało nieznaczną zmianę barwy w kierunku barwy czerwonej. Drewno jesionu (szczególnie bielu) wykazuje wysoką wrażliwość na oddziaływanie promieniowania ultrafioletowego, co stanowi jego wadę przy zastosowaniach na materiały podłogowe oraz fronty meblowe. Corresponding author: Agnieszka Kurowska Department of Wood Sciences and Wood Preservation Faculty of Wood Technology Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW 159 Nowoursynowska St. 02-776 Warsaw, Poland email: [email protected] phone: +48 22 59 38 661 Paweł Kozakiewicz Department of Wood Sciences and Wood Preservation Faculty of Wood Technology Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW 159 Nowoursynowska St. 02-776 Warsaw, Poland email: [email protected] http://pawel_kozakiewicz.users.sggw.pl phone: +48 22 59 38 647

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Determination of the wettability of European lime wood (Tilia

cordata Mill.) as sculptures and painting supports material AGNIESZKA KUROWSKA, PAWEŁ KOZAKIEWICZ Department of Wood Science and Wood Preservation, Faculty of Wood Technology, Warsaw University of Life Sciences - SGGW, 159 Nowoursynowska St., 02-776 Warsaw Abstract: Determination of the wettability of European lime wood (Tilia cordata Mill.) as sculptures

and painting supports material. European lime wood, which is the subject of the research, is used in Europe principally for making sculptures, frames and painting supports. In this paper, the wettability of European lime wood has been determined by measuring the contact angle of wood wetted with water and diiodomethane, using the sessile drop method. Surface tension, wetting energy and work of adhesion for the wood - water and wood - diiodomethane structures have been marked. Surface free energy of the tested wood species was determined in accordance with the Owens - Wendt method. The course of wetting the wood with polar liquid, i.e. water, showed considerable dynamics. After 60 s from placing a water drop on the lime wood surface the contact angle decreased by 70%. When the wood was wetted with diiodomethane, however, the contact angle decreased by 30%. The dominant component, which was also more variable in time, was the energy which originated from the polar liquid (water). Key words: European lime, wettability, contact angle, surface free energy, wetting energy, work of adhesion, surface tension INTRODUCTION Lime (Tilia cordata Mill.) is a common tree species in Poland; it grows in the entire plain and in sub - mountainous areas. It is a relatively slow - growing species, but it does not have high habitat requirements (Gałczyński 1928, Strojny 1981). It is also a longeval tree. An 18th century author, Fr Krzysztof Kluk, wrote (1778) "it stands unspoilt for more than a thousand years". Moreover, it grows to considerable size, reaching ca. 40 m in height and ca. 800 cm in trunk circumference (Strojny 1981). Lime wood belongs to diffuse - porous wood species without heartwood. Because of its low density, 350 - 600 kg/m3 in air drying condition (Kollmann and Cöte 1968, Krzysik 1978), and straight fibre composition, lime wood is an easy material for planing, turning and sculpting (Warywoda 1957, Galewski and Korzeniowski 1958). Many valuable historic objects (sculptures and painting supports) made of lime wood are found at the present time in museum collections and churches. These objects are in different states of preservation (e.g. Popescu et al. 2005, Trochimowicz and Swaczyna 2005, Trochimowicz 2010, Wiłkojć 2012), as this type of wood has low natural durability (only class 5 according to EN 350-2:1994) and is often attacked by insects and microorganisms (Galewski and Korzeniowski 1958, Strzelczyk 2004, Kozakiewicz et al. 2011). In preserving and restoring objects made of lime wood it is often necessary to insert plug patches made of modern wood. Glued patches are covered and saturated with various substances. The crucial role in such treatment is played by the characteristics of wettability as well as the physicochemical properties of lime wood surface, such as the contact angle, surface tension, wetting energy, work of adhesion, and surface free energy. Quantification of the above has been the purpose of this paper.

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MATERIAL AND METHODS European lime wood (Tilia cordata Mill.) was used for the tests. Samples of 135×135×15 mm were cut in accordance with the principal anatomical section lines of the wood in such a manner as to obtain tangential section (dominant in lime wood products) on the broad surfaces (planes). The surfaces of wood samples were planed. The samples having been brought to air drying condition, wood moisture content was determined in accordance with ISO 13061-1:2014, and wood density in accordance with the requirements of ISO 13061-2:2014. Table 1. Data of surface tension and components of the test liquids

Liquid Property

Surface tension

[mN/m]

Dispersion

[mJ/m2]

Polar

[mJ/m2]

Acid

[mJ/m2]

Base

[mJ/m2]

water (H2O) 72.80 21.90 51.00 25.50 25.50

diiodomethane (CH2I2) 50.80 50.80 0.00 0.00 0.00

The contact angles in wetting the wood with reference liquids were measured according to the sessile drop method in Phoenix 300 goniometer manufactured by Surface Electro Optics. The reference liquids were polar, i.e. water, and nonpolar, i.e. diiodomethane (tab.1). Surface tension, wetting energy and work of adhesion were determined for the wood - water and wood - diiodomethane structure. Surface free energy of the wood was determined on the basis of tests using the Owens - Wendt method (Owens and Wendt 1969). The parameters characterizing wood wettability were measured after 1, 2, 3, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 and 60 seconds from placing the liquid drop on the wood surface. Trend lines illustrating the changes in time in individual parameters were drawn, parameters of curve equation (yD) were stated, as well as determination coefficients R2. The statistical study of the tests results was carried out at a significance level of 0.050. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Lime wood was characterized by 497 kg/m3 density (±11 kg/m3) and 6.41% (±0.6%) moisture content. The density was typical for this wood species (Galewski and Korzeniowski 1958, Wagenführ 2007), as well as its variation. For example, according to the tests of Sekhar and Negi (1960) involving 250 logs of 50 different wood species, the variation coefficient within a single wood species in air drying condition amounts on the average to ca. 6%. The results of the wettability measurements are presented in figures 1 and 2. a). b).

Figure 1. Contact angle (a) and surface tension (b) of the structure lime wood - water (yW), lime wood - diiodomethane (yD)

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Lime wood parameters changed significantly within the analysed time span, i.e. 60 seconds. The changes had exponential function character; they were most rapid in the first seconds of the tests. The process of wetting the wood with polar liquid, i.e. water, showed greater dynamics than with nonpolar liquid, i.e. diiodomethane; this is significant dependence for gluing lime wood and finishing its surface. After 60 s from placing the water drop on the lime wood surface the contact angle changed from 56o to 16o (i.e. by 71%). In the case of nonpolar liquid, i.e. diiodomethane, the decrease in contact angle was from 23o to 16o (by 30%) (fig. 1a). Other effects of wood wetting included changes in liquid surface tension; they were largest in the drop of water (fig. 1b). The surface tension doubled in 60 s from placing the water drop on the surface of lime wood. In the case of diiodomethane, however, the increase in surface tension observed 60 s after placing the drop on wood surface was by 20%. a). b).

Figure 2. Wetting energy (a) and work of adhesion (b) of the structure lime wood - water (yW), lime wood - diiodomethane (yD)

Moreover, significant changes in wetting energy (fig. 2a) and the work of adhesion (fig. 2) were observed in the lime wood – water structure. After 60 seconds from placing the water drop on the tangential surface of lime wood the wetting energy increased by ca. 70%. In the case of the lime wood – diiodomethane structure, however, 5% increase in wetting energy was observed 60 s after depositing the drop on the surface of wood. Furthermore, in the case of wetting the wood with water, an increase in the work of adhesion by ca. 26% was observed after 60 seconds from placing the drop on the surface of wood. For the structure lime wood – diiodomethane, however, the increase in the work of adhesion was at the level of 2%, i.e. statistically insignificant.

Figure 3. Surface free energy (SFE), dispersion and polar components

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Figure 3 presents the curves which illustrate the changes in time in surface energy

and its components (polar and dispersive). Obtained results indicate that the dominant component, which is also more variable in time, is the energy which originates from the polar liquid (water). The results are typical for species without heartwood with open wood structure and low extractives content, e.g. beech or poplar wood (Santoni and Pizzo 2011). CONCLUSIONS

The research into the surface wettability of lime wood (Tilia cordata Mill.) enabled the following conclusions to be drawn: 1. The course of the wetting process, in particular with polar liquid (water), shows

considerable dynamics. After 60 s from placing a water drop on lime wood surface the contact angle decreased by 70%. However, when the wood was wetted with diiodomethane, the contact angle decreased by 30%.

2. When the wood was wetted with water, 60 seconds after the drop was deposited on wood surface the wetting energy was observed to increase by ca. 70%. In the case of lime wood – diiodomethane structure, the increase in wetting energy was at the level of 5%.

3. The dominant component, which was also more variable in time, was the energy which originated from the polar liquid (water).

REFERENCES 1. EN 350-2:1994 Durability of wood and wood - based products. Natural durability of

solid wood. Part 2: Guide to natural durability and treatability of selected wood species of importance in Europe.

2. GALEWSKI W., KORZENIOWSKI A., 1958: Atlas najważniejszych gatunków drewna. Państwowe Wydawnictwo Rolnicze i Leśne, Warszawa.

3. GAŁCZYŃSKI B., 1928: Drzewa liściaste leśne i alejowe. Nakładem Autora. Piaseczno pod Warszawą.


5. ISO 13061-2:2014 Physical and mechanical properties of wood – Test methods for small clear wood specimens – Part 2: Determination of density for physical and mechanical tests.

6. KLUK K., 1778: Roślin potrzebnych, pożytecznych osobliwie krajowych, albo które w kraju użyteczne być mogą utrzymanie, rozmnożenie, zażycie. Warszawa.

7. KOLLMANN F., CÖTE W.A., 1968: Principles of wood science and wood technology. Solid wood – part I. Berlin-Heidelberg-N.York.

8. KOZAKIEWICZ P., MAŃKOWSKI P., WIŁKOJĆ E., 2011: Evaluation of Paraloid B-72 lime wood reinforcement efficiency. Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW, Forestry and Wood Technology 74: 216-220.

9. KRZYSIK F., 1978: Nauka o drewnie, Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, Warszawa.

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10. OWENS D.K., WENDT R.C., 1969: Estimation of the surface free energy of polymers. Journal of Applied Polymer Science 13 (8): 1741-1747.

11. POPESCU C.M., SAKATA Y., POPESCU M.C., OSAKA A., VASILE C., 2005: Degradation of lime wood painting supports. e-PreservationScience 2: 19-29.

12. SANTONI I., PIZZO B., 2011: Effect of surface conditions related to machining and air exposure on wettability of different Mediterranean wood species. International Journal of Adhesion & Adhesives 31: 743-753.

13. SEKHAR A.C., NEGI G.S. 1960: Über die Variationskoeffizienten der mechanischen Eigenschaften des Holzes. Holz als Roh- und Werkstoff 18 (10): 367-369.

14. STROJNY W., 1981: Nasze drzewa. PWRiL. Wydanie I. Warszawa. 15. STRZELCZYK A.B., 2004: Observations on aesthetic and structural changes induced

in Polish historic objects by microorganisms. International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation 53 (3): 151-156.

16. TROCHIMOWICZ A., 2010: Conservation of wooden sculpture of saint Anne. Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW. Forestry and Wood Technology 72: 382-385.

17. TROCHIMOWICZ A., SWACZYNA I., 2005: Species of wood used in cradle structures. Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW. Forestry and Wood Technology 72: 386-389.

18. WARYWODA A., 1957: Encyklopedia techniczna tom I. Drzewa użytkowe w architekturze przestrzennej i przemyśle. A-Z ważniejsze gatunki iglaste i liściaste produkujące drewno i inne surowce znane na międzynarodowych rynkach handlowych. Krakowski Zespół Pracowników Naukowych. Kraków.

19. WAGENFÜHR R., 2007: Holzatlas.6., neu bearbeitete und erweitere Auflage. Mit zahlreichen Abbildungen. Fachbuchverlag Leipzig im Carl Hanser Verlag, München.

20. WIŁKOJĆ E., 2012: Christ Blessing The Children by Lucas Cranach the Elder in the Collection of the Wawel Royal Castle, study and conservation. Publishing by Wawel Royal Castle, Cracow.

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Streszczenie: Oznaczenie zwilżalności drewna lipy drobnolistnej (Tilia cordata Mill.) jako materiału używanego w rzeźbiarstwie i na podobrazia drewniane. Drewno lipy stosowane jest w krajach europejskich głównie do wytwarzania rzeźb, ram i podobrazi. Przy konserwacji i restauracji obiektów z drewna lipowego często istnieje potrzeba stosowania uzupełnień ze współczesnego drewna. Wklejane wstawki są pokrywane i przesycane różnymi substancjami. Przy tego typu zabiegach decydujące znaczenie mają właściwości charakteryzujące zwilżalność i fizykochemiczne właściwości powierzchni. W pracy określono zwilżalność drewna lipy metodą ”osadzonej„ kropli dla układu drewno - woda oraz drewno - dijodometan. Przebieg procesu zwilżania, w szczególności cieczą polarną (wodą), wykazuje znaczną dynamikę. W przypadku zwilżania drewna wodą stwierdzono wzrost wartości energii zwilżania o ok. 70% po 60 sekundach od naniesienia kropli na powierzchnię drewna. Natomiast dla układu drewno lipy - dijodometan wzrost wartości energii zwilżania był na poziomie 5%. Dominującą składową swobodnej energii powierzchniowej drewna lipy jest energia pochodząca od cieczy polarnej (wody).

Corresponding authors: Agnieszka Kurowska Department of Wood Sciences and Wood Preservation Faculty of Wood Technology Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW 159 Nowoursynowska St. 02-776 Warsaw, Poland email: [email protected] phone: +48 22 59 38 661 Paweł Kozakiewicz Department of Wood Sciences and Wood Preservation Faculty of Wood Technology Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW 159 Nowoursynowska St. 02-776 Warsaw, Poland email: [email protected] http://pawel_kozakiewicz.users.sggw.pl phone: +48 22 59 38 647

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Compression strength parallel to grain of lime wood

impregnated with Paraloid B-72 solution in butyl acetate

PIOTR MAŃKOWSKI, PAWEŁ KOZAKIEWICZ, SŁAWOMIR KRZOSEK Department of Wood Science and Wood Preservation, Faculty of Wood Technology, WULS-SGGW, 159 Nowoursynowska St., 02-776 Warsaw Abstract: Due to effortlessness of surface treatment and refinement, lime wood was commonly used in sculpture and production of painting supports. Unfortunately, it often suffer damages, because of low natural durability. There are various types of polymers introduced into antique wood structure in the process of its consolidation. One of them is Paraloid B-72. The study presented in this paper proves that impregnation of lime wood with saturated solution of Paraloid B-72 in butyl acetate has no significant impact on compression strength of wood. Key words: lime wood, Paraloid B-72, density of wood, compression strength INTRODUCTION

Lime was common in Poland for a long time, so properties and usability of its wood are widely known. Lime wood is straight-grained and soft, easily workable even with the simple tools [Galewski and Korzeniowski 1958, Krzysik 1978]. Because of that, it is eagerly and commonly used for sculptures, reliefs, altars and panel paintings. Nowadays, numerous objects made of lime wood are gathered in museum collections (e.g. panel painting of “Christ blessing the children” [Wiłkojć 2012]). Antique objects are in various state of preservation, because lime wood has low natural durability (only class 5 according to EN 350-2:1994) and is commonly attacked by insects and microorganisms [Galewski and Korzeniowski 1958, Krzysik 1978].

Numerous methods of wood structure consolidation are used in the process of conservation and restoration of antiques made of lime wood. One of them is impregnation in polymers. The quantity which can be used as an indicator of impregnation state is retention of polymer in wood [e.g. Paciorek 1993, Mańkowski, Kozakiewicz, Krzosek 2015]. Despite of commonness of this procedure, there are still not many papers concerning its impact on wood properties. For example, impregnation of lime wood in Paraloid B-72 does not positively influence its modules of elasticity, which indirectly indicates lack of strengthening effect [Kozakiewicz, Mańkowski, Wiłkojć 2011].

The aim of the study presented in this paper is to testify whether the impregnation of lime wood in Paraloid B-72 solution in butyl acetate is effective in respect to strengthening of wood structure. The indicator of strengthening is compression strength parallel to grain – the property of wood commonly used for this purpose because of small dimensions of specimens, universality of the method and simplicity of tests [e.g. Oniśko and Matejak 1971, Bednarek and Kaliszuk-Wietecka 2004, Kozakiewicz 2010]. MATERIAL AND METHODS

Small-leaved lime (Tilia cordata Mill.) was used in the tests. Wood samples (dimensions of 20x20x30 mm) were cut according to the main anatomic sections. These samples were divided into two equal groups (of 20 samples): control group (LW) and impregnated group (W1 and W2).

The samples (group W1 and W2) were adjusted to a constant mass at. 60oC before the saturation process. Then, the wood was impregnated with 10% solution of Paraloid B-72 in

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butyl acetate for 30 minutes in 760 mmHg vacuum. Afterwards, the saturated samples were left for a week flooded in impregnating solution. The next step was extracting samples from solution and evaporating in a fume hood. The impregnation and evaporation steps were performed once for group W1 and twice for group W2. The retention of the polymer was calculated from the formula [Mańkowski, Kozakiewicz, Krzosek 2015]:

o

on

V

mmR

−=

gdzie: R– retention of polymer [kg·m-3] mn – mass of wood after polymer saturation [kg], mo – mass of dry wood [kg], Vo – volume of dry wood [m3]. The samples density was determined using stereometric method in accordance to ISO

13061-2:2014 and its moisture content – in accordance to ISO 13061-1:2014. The investigation of wood compression strength was made using materials testing machine Instron 3380 according to PN-D-04102:1979 (ISO 3787:1976). The analysis of samples appearance after testing was performed according to norm ASTM D 143-94:2000. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The results of the study are presented in table 1 and figures 1 and 2.

Table 1. Selected physical and mechanical properties of lime wood before and after Paraloid B-72 saturation

Property of lime wood

Indication [unit]

Original lime wood (before impregnation) - group LW

Lime wood - group W1

Lime wood - group W2

Density of dry wood (density before impregnation) - average - standard deviation - variation coefficient

ρ [kg·m-3] sd [kg·m-3] ν [%]

534 62

11.7

517 77

14.8

513 78

15.2 Retention of Paraloid B-72 - average - standard deviation - variation coefficient

R [kg·m-3] sd [kg·m-3] ν [%]

0.0 - -

102 6

6.1

148 11 7.5

Compression strength parallel to grain - average - standard deviation - variation coefficient

Rc [MPa] sd [MPa] ν [%]

75.1 12.0 1.0

74.8 14.3 19.2

74.5 14.4 19.3

The density of lime wood before saturation was between 350 and 650 [kg·m-3].

The average density of all the samples (LW, W1 and W2) before saturation was about 525 [kg·m-3]). These values are similar to the data presented in literature [e.g. Galewski and Korzeniowski 1958, Krzysik 1978].

After single saturation with Paraloid B-72, the average density of lime wood increased to about 600 kg·m-3; after the second cycle – to about 630 kg·m-3. The observed increase of wood density is a result of presence of polymer after saturation processes. The amount of polymer in wood is indicated by retention (table 1). It should be stated that an increase of dry wood density – which means a decrease of its porosity – is followed by linear decrease of polymer retention [Mańkowski, Kozakiewicz, Krzosek 2015].

The dependencies between lime wood density before and after single or double saturation are presented in figure 1. They are linear functions with high correlation coefficients. Additionally, it was determined whether repeated drying of reference wood to

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0% moisture content influenced its density (figure 1). The correlation coefficient for LW group (close to one) indicates that this process had no impact on obtained results (it was correctly performed).

Figure 1. The relationship between the natural density of dry lime wood and dry density after process: single or double saturation in polymer (Paraloid B-72) and drying

Figure 2. The relationship between the density of dry lime wood and compressive strength parallel to grain before and after single or double saturation in Paraloid B-72

The compression strength parallel to grain of lime wood before saturation was between 45 and 92 [MPa] (the average was 75.1 [MPa]). These values are consistent with data

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presented in literature [e.g. Galewski and Korzeniowski Krzysik 1978]. Compression strength after single saturation was averagely 74.8 MPa and after double saturation – 74.5 MPa. The analysis of correlation lines (figure 2) which are almost colinear indicates that saturation with Paraloid B-72 Polymer does not significantly change lime wood compression strength – there is a lack of strengthening effect. The obtained results confirm the results of previous studies concerning modulus of elasticity [Kozakiewicz, Mańkowski, Wiłkojć 2011].

The most of compressed specimens were damaged by “squashing” of wood fibers laying near front surfaces (cross sections) and by “cutting” – the crack lines were skew in respect to longitudinal axis of specimens – the type of damages was “end-rolling” and “shearing” according to ASTM D 143-94:2000. The process of impregnation had no influence of specimens appearance after compression test. The observed type of damages is characteristic for air-dried wood of low density and more homogenous structure – straight grained wood with smaller differences between densities of early- and latewood (diffuse-porous wood) [Kozakiewicz 2010]. CONCLUSIONS

From the study of the compression strength parallel to grain of lime wood (Tilia

cordata Mill.) impregnated with Paraloid B-72 solution in butyl acetate the following conclusions were made: 1. The introduction of polymer to lime wood results in significant increase of its density. This

effect is more evident after first impregnation cycle. 2. The impregnation does not significantly affect the compression strength parallel to grain

regardless of polymer retention (100 kg/m3 or 150 kg/m3) – it is virtually the same as in reference wood (not impregnated).

3. The impregnation does not affect the nature of dependency between compressive strength parallel to grain and density of air-dried wood. This process has also no significant impact on the image of damaged specimens – the type of damages is the same.

REFERENCES

1. BEDNAREK Z., KALISZUK-WIETECKA A., 2004: Badanie wpływu impregnacji próżniowo-ciśnieniowej na wytrzymałość drewna. Inżynieria i Budownictwo nr 4:213-215.

2. GALEWSKI W., KORZENIOWSKI A., 1958: Atlas najważniejszych gatunków drewna. Państwowe Wydawnictwo Rolnicze i Leśne.

3. KOZAKIEWICZ P., 2010: Wpływ temperatury i wilgotności na wytrzymałość na ściskanie wzdłuż włókien wybranych rodzajów drewna o zróżnicowanej gęstości i budowie anatomicznej. Rozprawy naukowe i monografie. Wydawnictwo SGGW. Warszawa.

4. KOZAKIEWICZ P., MAŃKOWSKI P., WIŁKOJĆ E., 2011: Evaluation of Paraloid B-72 lime wood reinforcement efficiency. Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW, Forestry and Wood Technology No 74, s. 216-220.

5. KRZYSIK F., 1978: Nauka o drewnie, Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, Warszawa

6. MAŃKOWSKI P., KOZAKIEWICZ P., KRZOSEK S., 2015: Retention of polymer in lime wood impregnated with Paraloid B-72 solution in butyl acetate. Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW, Forestry and Wood Technology No 92, 2015: 263-267.

7. ONIŚKO W., MATEJAK M., 1971: Einfluss 25%iger Ammoniaklösung auf die physikalischen und mechanischen Eigenschaften des Holzes. Holztechnologie nr 1:45-54. Lipsk.

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8. PACIOREK M., 1993: Badania wybranych tworzyw termoplastycznych stosowanych do impregnacji drewna Studia i materiały WKiRDS ASP Kraków, Wyd. Literackie.

9. WAGENFÜHR R., 2007: Holzatlas.6., neu bearbeitete und erweitere Auflage. Mit zahlreichen Abbildungen. Fachbuchverlag Leipzig im Carl Hanser Verlag.

10. WIŁKOJĆ E., 2012: Christ blessing the children by Lucas Cranach the elder in the Collection of the Wawel Royal Castle, study and conservation, Publishing by Wawel Royal Castle, Cracow.

11. ASTM D 143-94:2000 Standard test methods for small clear specimens of timber. 12. EN 350-2:1994 Durability of wood and wood-based products - Natural durability of

solid wood - Part 2: Guide to natural durability and treatability of selected wood species of importance in Europe.



15. ISO 3787:1976 Wood - Test methods for small clear wood specimens - Determination of ultimate stress in compression parallel to grain.

16. PN-D-04102:1979 Drewno. Oznaczanie wytrzymałości na ściskanie wzdłuż włókien. Streszczenie: Wytrzymałość na ściskanie wzdłuż włókien drewna lipowego nasyconego

roztworem Paraloidu B-72 w octanie butylu. Drewno lipowe ze względu na łatwość obróbki i uszlachetniania powierzchni było materiałem chętnie stosowanym w rzeźbiarstwie i podobraziach. Niestety ze względu na niską naturalną trwałość często ulega uszkodzeniom. Do konsolidacji drewna zabytkowego stosowane są różnego rodzaju polimery wprowadzane do jego struktury między innymi Paraloid B-72. W ramach przeprowadzonych badań udowodniono, że impregnacja drewna lipowego nasyconym roztworem Paraloidu B-72 w octanie butylu przy retencji 100 kg /m3 i 150 kg/m3 nie wpływa istotnie na jego wytrzymałość na ściskanie wzdłuż włókien. W tym zakresie nasycenie Paraloidem nie powoduje wzmocnienia struktury drewna mimo istotnego wzrostu gęstości. Corresponding authors: Piotr Mańkowski, Paweł Kozaiewicz, Sławomir Krzosek Department of Wood Sciences and Wood Protection Faculty of Wood Technology Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW 159 Nowoursynowska St. 02-776 Warsaw, Poland email: [email protected] phone: +48 22 59 386 38 email: [email protected] http://pawel_kozakiewicz.users.sggw.pl phone: +48 22 59 38 647 fax: +48 22 59 386 59 email: [email protected] phone: +48 22 59 386 33

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Use of photogrammetry in the detection of wood defects. Part 1. JAKUB MARKIEWICZ1, PIOTR MAŃKOWSKI2, RAFAŁ ZAPŁATA3, BOGUSŁAW ANDRES4,

1 Department of Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Systems, Warsaw University of Technology

2 Department of Wood Science and Wood Preservation, Faculty of Wood Technology, Warsaw University of Life Sciences

3 Department of Monument Conservation and Landscape Protection, Institute of Art History, Cardinal Stefan Wyszyński University in Warsaw 4 Department of Wood Science and Wood Preservation, Faculty of Wood Technology, Warsaw University of Life Sciences Abstract: This paper reviews the application of close-range terrestrial laser scanning in the investigation of timber decay. A Z+F laser scanner was used to acquire point clouds of samples of maple wood with an intergrown knot and heart rot. The analysis of orthoimages proves that this technique can be implemented not only to create high resolution digital documentation of wooden objects but also to analyse timber decay, including timber decay in historic objects and constructions. Keywords: maple, wood defects, terrestrial laser scanning, intensity analysis, orthoimages, 3D reconstruction active methods, photogrammetry

INTRODUCTION Non-destructive methods are more and more often implemented in the woodworking

industry to determine the quality of timber. In mill-works, laser scanners allow to determine the size and shape of logs. Works are conducted to apply non-destructive methods in the analysis of veneer timber [www.microtec.eu]. Tomography helps to find an optimal cutting solution for each log [www.microtec.eu]. Attempts to implement a tomograph have been undertaken in conservation (both to estimate the state of preservation prior to conservation [Trochimowicz, 2015] and to evaluate the effectiveness of conservation [Wiłkojć, 2012]).

Additionally, there is a number of possibilities to implement non-destructive methods, including photogrammetry, in heritage protection, especially with regard to wooden features. Such methods can be used to detect decay in wood and to diagnose objects.

The here reviewed works included attempts to use photogrammetric methods to analyse timber decay. The goal was to determine their usefulness, to verify and analyse the

potential of such methods procedures as well as their further usefulness for works with wooden objects of historic value. Photogrammetric methods can be divided into two groups:

passive, based on reconstruction shape on the basis of multiple images (Remondino 2008, Fraser, 1996; Clarke, 1998; El-Hakim, 2003; Mousa, 2014) and active distance measurements methods, based on time-of-flight (TOF).

Contemporary photogrammetric (image-based) methods rely on 'Structure from

Motion' algorithms. Such an approach bases on the combination of algorithms used in photogrammetry and in Computer Vision. It is a fully automated process that enables a 3D

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reconstruction of shape, taking into account the orientation of images, their self-calibration (elimination of geometrical errors of images) and the generation of dense point clouds describing the shape of investigated objects). The image-based approach in reconstructing shape relies upon locating points (reoccurring characteristics - primitives) that are present of at least two images. Matching points are transformed into 3D clouds of points based on mathematical functions. The main advantages of photogrammetric methods are as follows:

• no direct contact with the analysed object is required to create the photography;

• the time needed to make the images is very short (important especially in case of moving objects);

• the measurements and their analysis can be conducted in laboratories and other closed spaces;

• in case of measurement errors or of the need to complement data, the measurements can be easily repeated;

• the images present a true and objective images of the measured objects and have thus the value of archival documentation (Kurczyński, Preuss, 2003).

Terrestrial laser scanning is a 3D measurement technique based on measuring the distance to the investigated object (Vosselman, Mass, 2011). It allows to gather significant amount of precise data. Each measured point contains 3D coordinates and radiometric information (reflectance and/or RGB values). The intensity of laser beam reflection can be used in various ways to interpret the measured surface (Markiewicz et. al, 2014). Laser scanning systems can produce data that can vary in terms of point density, field-of-view (FOV), amount of noise, incident angle, waveform and texture information (Grussenmeyer, 2012). The main advantage of this technique is a possibility to measure low quality or even un-textured areas. Other advantages of terrestrial laser scanning include:

• quickness of data gathering;

• coherence of data;

• high density of data (giving the effect of an almost continuous image of the object);

• independence from light conditions in the surrounding;

• automation of measurements;

• possibility to remote-control the device. MATERIAL AND METHODS

In order to assess the possibilities of implementing terrestrial laser scanning, samples of timber were analysed with a close range Z+F 5006h scanner.

Close range Z+F 5006h scanner

This device operates in preview (29,6 mm/10m), middle (7.2 mm/10m), high (3.6 mm/10m), super high (1.8 mm/10m) and ultra high (0.9 mm/10m) resolutions. For this survey, the super high resolution 1,8mm/ 10m was chosen, with an accuracy of 0.7 mm for 10 m. The distance of scanning was less than 1.5 m and the timbers were oriented parallel to the scanner. This allowed to decrease the influence of the angle of scanning on the intensity of laser beam reflection within a given sample. Additionally, digital

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images were taken and used during the analysis of the sample. This enables to describe the decay visible on the scan. Scans were compared with images of the sample to evaluate the effectiveness of decay detection.

Sample

Maple (Acer platanoides L.), bark-free wood. An ingrown knot visible in the radial surface. Knot with heart rot and false heartwood (green discolouring). Clearly observable rays; annual rings poorly visible. A buckle on the trunk. Photogrammetry

The first goal of the analysis was to determine the density of point cloud for the maple sample. Theoretically, the density corresponding to this working distance of scanning is c. 0.5 mm. The real average density of laser data during the research amounted to 440 points/cm2.

In order to create metric documentation, an orthoimages (Fig. 1A, 2A) in the intensity of laser light reflection was created from the point cloud (Markiewicz, 2014, 2015). Such a method of data processing allowed to interpreted the point cloud and to measure the timber decay visible in the sample. Also the intensity of laser beam reflection on wood was analysed. Raw data from source files was used as source for analysis. A Matlab application was created to process clouds of points and display histograms of the intensity of laser light reflection. RESULTS

Significant differences in the intensity of laser light reflection are visible on the orthoimage (Fig. 1A). They are caused by the shape of the analysed sample. Those places where the laser beam “slid” over the surface of the buckle, are characterized by a lower intensity (blue colour, Fig. 1B) and shown on the orthoimage as darker areas. Analysing the intensity on the whole sample (Fig. 1B), small divergences from average intensity can be noted.

Fig.1A. Orthoimage of density, created on the basis of the point cloud

Fig.1B. Dense cloud with intensity displayed in colour

Fig.1C. the intensity of laser beam reflection

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On the basis of the histogram, it was possible to show local divergences in the intensity of the analysed material. They were caused by the shape of the sample. Similar analyses were conducted on the second sample. Analysing the orthoimage, low values of laser light reflection can be seen on the knot with heart rot (Fig. 2A, 2B and 2C). It can be assumed that such spots will be characterized by a significantly lower intensity. Analysing the histogram of laser light reflection, the existence of peaks of high values of laser beam reflection can be noted.

Fig 2A. Orthoimage of density, created on the basis of the point cloud

Fig 2B. Dense cloud with intensity displayed in colour

Fig 2C. the intensity of laser beam reflection

The two peaks correspond to the reflection on rays (below the knot) and to the reflection on the area of the deformation of rings overgrowing the knot (above the knot). CONCLUSION

The above presented research proved a high potential of terrestrial laser scanning for the investigation of timber decay. It enables the creation of high resolution documentation in the form of orthoimages. Such documentation is free from errors typical for hand-taken measurements.

In addition to geometric data, also the intensity of laser beam reflection is important, as it can be used to interpret and detect timber decay.

This paper refers to research carried out within the scientific project “Use of Laser Scanning and Remote Sensing in the Protection, Analysis and Inventory of the Cultural Heritage. Development of Non-invasive, Digital Methods of Documentation and Recognition of Architectural and Archaeological Heritage Resources” conducted in 2012-2015 by the Cardinal Stefan Wyszyński University in Warsaw as part of the “National Program for the Advancement of Humanities” established by the Ministry of Science and Higher Education in Poland.

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Acknowledgments

Authors would like to thank Mr. Piotr Podlasiak form Department of Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Systems, Warsaw University of Technology for leading application for TLS data processing

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Photogrammetry Record, Volume 16, pp. 293 – 312.

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Measurement Techniques, Zurich, Switzerland, pp. 159 – 167.

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4. GRUSSENMEYER P., ALBY E., LANDES T., KOEHL M., GUILLEMIN S., HULLO J.F., ASSALI P., SMIGIEL E., 2012. Recording Approach of Heritage Sites based on Merging Point Clouds from High Resolution Photogrammetry and Terrestrial Laser Scanning. In: The International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote

Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences Melbourne, Australia, Vol. XXXIX, Part B5, pp. 553 -558.

5. KURCZYŃSKI Z., Preuss R., 2011: Podstawy Fotogrametrii, Oficyna Wydawnicza Politechniki Warszawskiej.

6. MARKIEWICZ J.S., PODLASIAK P., ZAWIESKA D., 2015: Attempts to automate the process of generation of orthoimages of objects of cultural heritage, Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spatial Inf. Sci., XL-5/W4, 393-401, doi:10.5194/isprsarchives-XL-5-W4-393-2015.

7. MARKIEWICZ J. S. AND ZAWIESKA D., 2014: Terrestrial scanning or digital images in inventory of monumental objects? – case study, Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spatial Inf. Sci., XL-5, 395-400, doi:10.5194/isprsarchives-XL-5-395-2014.

8. MARKIEWICZ J.S., ZAWIESKA D., KOWALCZYK M., ZAPŁATA R., 2014: Utilisation of laser scanning for inventory of an architectural object using the example of ruins of the Krakow bishops’ Castel in Ilza, Poland," Proc. 14th GeoConference on Informatics Geoinformatics and remote sensing 3, 391-396.

9. LERMA J.L., 2008: 3D RiskMapping. Theory and pratice on Terrestrial Laser Scanning . Tranning material based on pratical applications. http://jllerma.webs.upv.es/pdfs/ Leonardo_Tutorial_Final_vers5_ENGLISH.pdf (8.05.2014)

10. REMONDINO F., MENNA F., 2008: Image-based surface measurement for close-range heritage documentation. In: The International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, Beijing, China, Vol. XXXVIII-5, Part B5, pp. 199 - 206.

11. TROCHIMOWICZ A., 2015: Wpływ parkietaży na odkształcenia podobrazi drewnianych i stan zachowania warstw malarskich (rozprawa doktorska WTD SGGW)

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12. WIŁKOJĆ E., 2012: Chrystus błogosławiący dzieci Lucasa Cranacha st. w zbiorach Zamku Królewskiego na Wawelu w świetle badań i działań konserwatorskich, Zamek Królewski na Wawelu, Kraków

13. VOSSELMAN G., MAAS H-G., 2011: Airborne and Terrestrial Laser Scanning, Whitles Publishing, Scotland UK, 111-119 www.zf-laser.com/fileadmin/editor/Broschueren/z_f_imager_5010c_e_final_kompr.pdf (17.04.2015).

14. SCHAJER G.S., 2001: Timber strength grading using x-ray scanning, NDT.net - March 2001, Vol. 6 No. 03 www.ndt.net/article/v06n03/schajer/schajer.htm (17.04.2015)

15. ZAPŁATA R., 2013: Analiza i dokumentacja drewna zabytkowego z użyciem technologii skanowania - Laser scanning in the analysis and documentation of historic wood, [in:] Drewno zabytkowe: badania i konserwacja w XXI wieku. Heritage wood: research and conservation in the 21st century, red. R. Pasieczny, Warszawa, s. 77-78 / 184 [materiał konferencyjny] http://www.nimoz.pl/pobierz/718.html (17.04.2015)

16. ZAPŁATA R., 2013: Nieinwazyjne metody w badaniu i dokumentacji dziedzictwa kulturowego – aspekty skanowania laserowego w badaniach archeologicznych i architektonicznych, Warszawa

17. www.microtec.eu/en/solutions/logs/quality/ctlog (17.04.2015)

Streszczenie :W pracy podjęto próbę wykorzystania naziemnego skaningu laserowego bliskiego zasięgu do określenia wad drewna. Za pomocą skanera Z+F 5006h poddano digitalizacji próbki drewna klonu z zarośniętym sękiem i zgnilizna twardą. Analiza uzyskanego ortoobrazu potwierdza możliwość wykorzystania badanej techniki nie tylko do wykonania wysokorozdzielczej dokumentacji obiektów ale również do określania wad drewna.

Corresponding authors Jakub MARKIEWICZ, MSc Zakład Fotogrametrii Teledetekcji i Systemów Informacji Przestrzennej Wydział Geodezji i Kartografii Politechnika Warszawska e-mail: [email protected] Piotr MAŃKOWSKI, PhD Katedra Nauki o Drewnie i Ochrony Drewna, Zakład Nauki o Drewnie SGGW e-mail: [email protected] Rafał ZAPŁATA, PhD Uniwersytet Kardynała Stefana Wyszyńskiego w Warszawie Instytut Historii Sztuki Zakład Konserwacji Zabytków i Ochrony Krajobrazu UKSW w Warszawie e-mail: [email protected] Bogusław ANDRES, PhD Katedra Nauki o Drewnie i Ochrony Drewna, Zakład Ochrony Drewna SGGW e-mail: [email protected]

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Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW

Forestry and Wood Technology № 93, 2016: 116-121

(Ann. WULS - SGGW, For. and Wood Technol. 93, 2016)

Strategies of the choice of the type of protection of an industrial pattern1 in

the furniture industry – how companies can effectively safeguard

themselves against imitation

IZABELA PODOBAS

Faculty of Wood Technology SGGW

Abstract: Strategies of the choice of the type of protection of an industrial pattern in the furniture industry – how

companies can effectively safeguard themselves against imitation. In the furniture industry it is a very common

practice to attempt at imitating products and infringing upon industrial patterns. For this very reason good design

requires protection and strategy leading to enhancement of its value. Yet a number of Polish companies protect

their solutions merely under the Act on suppressing of unfair competition, which, however, hardly constitutes

sufficient protection against imitation. This is namely because Polish law provides for a principle of freedom of

imitation of one’s competitors’ solutions unless they mislead customers or have been reserved as exclusive rights.

The article indicates solutions which can strengthen a company’s market position and enhance the customer's

awareness of a unique and special nature of an offered product, and, first and foremost, provide protection against

copying and infringing upon characteristic design.

Keywords: imitation; design protection; industrial patterns; inspiration

INTRODUCTION

Protection of industrial property, i.e. protection of innovative solutions, characteristic

design, as well as trademarks constitutes an issue of immense significance in the furniture

industry. The reason underlying this fact is that industrial property is strictly connected with the

processes of creating, developing and making use of the acquired expertise, possessed skills

and gained experience and is and outcome of human creation, creativity, ideas and invention,

as well as entrepreneurial actions.

Since the very beginning of the development of the furniture sector there have appeared

dishonest businesses which copied furniture of their competitors incurring no outlays and

making no efforts regarding preparation of their own original solutions. Therefore, the issue

pertaining to appropriation of another person’s industrial property constitutes a significant

problem both for huge and small family-owned furniture businesses; consequently, if

entrepreneurs wish that their furniture was more appreciated by customers on only in Poland,

but also throughout the whole world, they have to invest in development and protection of their

products.

Currently in the furniture industry it is design that determines one’s successfulness.

Excellent design is focused on the end-user and combines aesthetic values, functionality, as

well as ergonomics of use. It is namely due to design that customers can see for themselves

both innovativeness and ingenuity of a given manufacturer. Many projects have been launched

1 For the sake of clarification, I would like to explain that in Polish, unlike in the EU law to be referred to later in

my article, there are three similar key words used when referring to the subject matter of the text: „wzór

przemysłowy” [industrial pattern], „wzornictwo przemysłowe” [industrial design], and „design” [design] – all of

them denoting quite similar, however, separate concepts as we can conclude given their translations. Therefore,

instead of using „industrial design” here for „wzór przemysłowy”, just the way it is used in the EU, I have

decided to use the word „industrial pattern” to show its difference from the meaning of the Polish word

translated commonly as „industrial design”, as I have just shown.

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in Europe aimed at motivating European businesses and their designers to build up their own

strategies concerning patterns [Innovation Union: 2020]. It is also worthwhile to underline that

pro-innovative actions make up a significant element of a country's economic policy since

ensuring to innovators the right to exclusive economic use of their solutions by means of

granting patents for inventions and protective rights for patterns fosters return on the

investment outlays incurred on development and implementation of the solutions, as well as

accumulating funds for carrying on with innovative activity [Pyrża, 2009]. Taking account of

the specific nature of the furniture sector, where every year a few thousand new furniture

patterns are launched, the possibility to register an industrial pattern is of the most significance

to the extent of the protection of the manufacturer’s rights.

The article aims to analyze the benefits to be gained from legal protection of

characteristic design, as well as to indicate an important difference between inspiration and

imitation. The topic taken up here does also concern a need to change the way Polish

entrepreneurs think, given the fact that the long period of existence of the People’s Republic of

Poland distorted their ability to think strategically in terms of marketing. Firstly, at that time

demand exceeded supply, and entrepreneurs held the assumption that everything would sell

anyway, irrespective of the design or the product quality. Secondly, hardly no emphasis was

put to the protection of one’s own product, and, at the same time, imitation was very often

played down. Therefore, given the increase in competitiveness on the furniture market, the issue

of struggle against illegitimate copying becomes increasingly significant and requires

consistency as well as promotion. Pursuant to the foregoing, an assumption was adopted that

maintaining a good market position of Polish furniture manufacturers will entail the necessity

to change an attitude to the protection of industrial property and conceiving of it in terms of it

being an asset rather than a cost.

LEGAL PROTECTION OF INDUSTRIAL PATTERNS

Since the very beginning of the furniture industry what has been valued mostly is

elegance, style and quality of performance.

Industrialization, development of communication and establishment of global markets

have made design an indispensable part of every product nowadays. In the furniture industry

new products and patterns appear each day, and they should be notified to the Polish Patent

Office and entered into relevant databases. All of this serving one goal, namely to avoid copying

or “imitating” a product following incurring outlays on its development. Since it is obvious that

the design of a given furniture item is what makes a number of companies successful [Podobas,

2015].

Both in the European Union, and in Polish legislation, the term “pattern” is clearly

defined to mean the appearance of the whole or a part of a product resulting from the features

of, in particular, the lines, contours, colours, shape, texture and/or materials of the product itself

and/or its ornamentation [the industrial property law Act, Article 102; Article 3 of the

Regulation on Community designs].

According to the aforesaid, in the furniture industry an industrial pattern can be

identified with a shape, colouring or ornamentation of a new furniture item. Obviously, a pattern

has to possess a so-called registration ability in order to obtain protection. So, first of all, it must

pertain to a form of a creation or its part, i.e. it has to refer to outer elements of the creation

such as a shape, structure, profile pattern, contours, features of the surface, drawing, ornament,

colouring, and the like. Secondly, the pattern has to be a new one – which condition will be

satisfied when prior to the date on which the priority to obtain a right under a registration is

designated, no identical pattern is made commonly available through using, exhibiting, or

disclosing in any other manner. It must be understood at the same time, that a pattern is deemed

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identical with the one made commonly available also when it differs from the latter only to the

extent of irrelevant details. The third precondition of the industrial pattern’s registration ability

is related to its individual nature, which means that a general impression it makes on an aware

user differs from the one made on him or her by a commonly available pattern before the date

on the basis of which the priority is designated [the Polish Patent Office].

Entrepreneurs, before launching a new and unique industrial pattern, depending on the

adopted strategy, can register it in the Polish Patent Office (UP) and obtain national protection

or in the Office for Harmonization in the Internal Market (OHIM) in Alicante and cover it by

protection within the territory of the European Union. They can also commence their

commercial activity with the use of this pattern without its registration, basing merely on

common protection of a non-registered pattern (both national and Community one).

It’s notable, that the European Union legislation has enacted rights to a Community

pattern in two forms – a registered and a non-registered pattern. This latter form of protection

of interests related to the form of a product is of particular importance for the ban on imitation,

since apart from the requirement of making a pattern satisfying the requirement of

innovativeness and unique character publicly available in the EU, this form is independent of

any registration formalities [Tischner, p. 3]. A non-registered Community pattern is protected

for three years since being made publicly available for the first time within the EU. The

assumption behind this is that this time is needed to depreciate the investment, however this

three-year protective period cannot be extended.

The most effective form in struggle against imitation is registration of an industrial

pattern – both according to the procedure applied in UP and in OHIM – which warrants the

most extensive protection both against manufacturing, sale, advertising, importing/exporting,

as well as against putting a product including the protected pattern (or in which the given pattern

was applied) into circulation. Such actions undertaken without having consent of the pattern’s

owner will always be considered to be unlawful. Registration according to the OHIM procedure

begins with a preliminary protective period and is continued 5 years from the date of the

pattern’s notification; it can, however, be extended by subsequent 5 years, until as long as 25

years. Whereas in Poland, the protective period under registration of an industrial pattern is 25

years.

To sum up, owing to the registration of industrial patterns, a business gains protection

of products against copying and violation, prevents from forgeries and frauds, as well as

enhances its assets and secures its rights [OHIM]. Thus a pattern is a unique sign of a firm’s

intellectual property and serves as a practical way of protecting an innovative solution: it can

be used as a collateral, it constitutes a business's asset subject to audit, and, furthermore, it can

be sold or licensed. It’s also a challenge for other designers.

IMITATION VS. INSPIRATION

An inspired work is a work having features of independent creation, despite the fact that

an incentive for its development was another person’s work – this is the wording of the term's

definition from the Act on copyright of 1926. The current law in this respect contains only a

provision that the work which has been created under the inspiration of another author person’s

work shall not be deemed the derivative work [Article 2, paragraph 4 of the copyright Act]. This

means that an inspired work is a work that was created under an enlightenment and influence

exerted by another work, while at the same time being original and creative.

According to the Polish legislator it is permitted to be guided by inspiration when

developing a brand new work. For it is hardly possible to require that in the era of the so-called

global village a work will be created without any references to works already created. But is it

always possible to distinguish from each other a derivative work, imitation, inspiration and

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plagiarism? Unfortunately nowadays we are not able to calculate just how many percent

comprise a derivative work, and how many – inspiration. The question of how to draw the line

between inspiration and a derivative work, or actually imitation and plagiarism is always going

to be resolved ad casu. Each time, when using another person’s industrial pattern, one must

consider whether the newly-created product can be still classified as an inspiration or in fact as

a plagiarism.

In the business environment one can also come across opinions that imitation is a

quicker, easier to implement, less risky and more profitable way than being innovative. The

only important thing for a business is to be aware just when it can imitate lawfully and gain

profit therefrom. For instance – Oded Shenkar holds a view that a number of businesses is easily

affected by the pressure of a mythical power of innovation and very frequently makes all the

efforts, even when this seems pointless, to develop the next product/shape/pattern/model –

whereas it is imitation that may be more contributory for development of enterprises than

innovativeness. In his opinion good imitators do not wait, but are active seekers of ideas

worthwhile copying. Moreover, they go beyond just reproducing other persons' ideas and come

up with their cheaper or improved versions. He also stated that effective imitation is a

challenging task requiring both intelligence and imagination [Shenkar, 2010]. Followers of this

theory believe that in order to enhance their chances for being successful, an imitator should

understand the gist of the "genuine" imitation, develop skills enabling to effectively use this

practice and learn how to implement the imitation strategies [HBR]. At the same time it’s

worthwhile to bear in mind that only being active can give businesses assurance of more

extensive protection of rights to patterns, designs and original products. This is because the

above assumptions refer to patterns, i.e. products having been granted no exclusive rights.

It's quite notable that the Polish pattern of counteracting unfair imitation respects the

structural principle of freedom of imitation. Imitation is permissible insofar as the form of the

product is not covered by protection of industrial property rights and only in such cases when

it brings about no confusion [Poźniak-Niedzielska, S. Sołtysiński, 1994]. The principle of

freedom of imitation so understood fosters both competition through innovation, and

competition through imitation [Tichner, s. 3].

Article 3, paragraph 1 of the Act defines the concept of an unfair competition act. Such

act is deemed to be an action at variance with either law or good customs, if such action poses

a threat to or infringes upon interests of another entrepreneur or customer. A specific action, as

an unfair competition act, is therefore subject to civil or civil and legal sanctions, where

undertaken in connection with business activity. Moreover, Article 13 of the Act enumerates

detailed prerequisites justifying to recognize certain actions of an entrepreneur as unfair

competition acts in the form of imitation. Paragraph 1 of this Article provides that an unfair

competition act means imitating a finished product (i.e. a final product which was given a form

making it possible to put it into circulation), consisting in that its surface form is copied by

means of technical reproduction measures (excluding, e.g., manual copying of products),

provided that it may mislead the customers as regards the producer or product’s identity. It is

generally assumed that, with regard to possibility of misleading, the assessment should be made

taking account of average, not careful and not quite so noticing market participants [SN, OSP

1998, pp. 7-8].

In order for an act to be recognized as an event of imitation under Article 13, paragraph

1 of the Act on suppression of unfair competition, the entrepreneur’s actions must be misleading

for customers, i.e. there must occur the phenomenon of so-called confusion. Consequently,

while intending to launch copies of the competitors’ products, one has to make all the efforts

not to bring about the effect of possibly misleading impression in potential product’s buyers. It

will be e.g. necessary to appropriately display the trademark of the business name of the actual

producer, thus preventing from being charged with a claim of committing an unfair competition

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act. We should also emphasize that the intention or actual fault of the act’s perpetrator is not

relevant. What counts is a mere effect in the form of confusion.

Pursuant to the aforesaid, one should assume that the protection of industrial patterns in

the furniture industry against imitation will not be sufficient, for imitating the functional

features of a product, in particular its construction, structure and form guaranteeing its

usefulness, does not constitute an act of unfair competition. Where imitating the functional

features of a finished product requires taking account of its characteristic form, thus possibly

misleading the customers as regards the identity of a producer or a product itself, the imitator

is obliged to appropriately designate a product. Thus, protection against unfair imitation

concerns only this facet of the market game that relates to perception of products by recipients

(customers, consumers).

CONCLUSION

Current demand for new visual incentives is enormously high, hence the significant role

for modern and original industrial design to play, which design, besides its aesthetical factors,

is quite often also linked with functionality and user-friendliness of various objects. Distinctive

and individual design of furniture forms a basis for success of any European firm which wants

to compete on a global market. Moreover, industrial patterns stimulate innovativeness and are

a factor fostering competitiveness. Currently 62% of businesses in the EU protect industrial

patterns in their activity.

We should bear in mind that a furniture item pattern is subject to legal protection basing

on as many as three different legal instruments, namely the Industrial property law, the Act on

copyright and related rights, as well as the Act on suppression of unfair competition. Despite

this fact, many Polish businesses play down the significance of design and limit their creativity

in this respect only to the Act on suppression of unfair competition. However, only a registered

pattern forms a commercial asset and effectively protects businesses against copying and

forgeries. Consequently, protection of an industrial pattern should comprise the priority element

of the marketing strategy of each designer of a manufacturer from the furniture industry.

Summing up, Polish entrepreneurs of the furniture industry face a serious challenge of

choosing the protection strategy of their individual solutions, namely: whether to protect them

only under general principles, or by means of exclusive rights. One may hope that more and

more furniture companies are going to effectively protect their solutions owing to obtaining

exclusive rights, as well as that they will not ignore unlawful imitation of their patterns. In turn,

the increase in the number of litigations in this respect, and, most importantly, effective

judgments regarding the issue of violations of exclusive rights, may contribute to bringing order

to the furniture market and rise in awareness of the rights concerning the intellectual property.

REFERENCES

1. HBR - Harvard Business Review Polska

http://www.hbrp.pl/news.php?id=178&t=trendy-nasladownictwo-jest-cenniejsze-niz-

innowacyjnosc-wywiad-z-odedem-shenkarem.

2. Innovation Union Policy: 2020 http://ec.europa.eu/europe2020/index_en.htm.

3. Kępiński M. (ed.), 2000: Ustawa o zwalczaniu nieuczciwej konkurencji. Komentarz,

C.H. Beck, Warszawa.

4. Nowińska E., du Vall M., 2004: Komentarz do ustawy o zwalczaniu nieuczciwej

konkurencji, Prawo handlowe, Wydawnictwo Prawnicze LexisNexis, Warszawa.

5. OHIM - Office for Harmonization in the Internal Market in Alicante

121

https://oami.europa.eu/ohimportal/pl/rcd-value.

6. Pałucki M., 2009: Naśladownictwo a nieuczciwa konkurencja,

http://inwestycje.pl/prawo/nasladownictwo_a_nieuczciwa_konkurencja%3B71885%3

B0.html.

7. Podobas I., 2015: Industrial property protection as a tool of building competitive

advantage of furniture businesses in Poland, Annals of Warsaw University of Life

Sciences – SGGW, Forestry and Wood Technology № 89, pp. 101-105.

8. Poźniak-Niedzielska M., Sołtysiński S., 1994: Ustawa o zwalczaniu nieuczciwej

konkurencji. Komentarz, (ed.) J. Szwaja, Warszawa.

9. Pyrża A. (ed.), 2009: Poradnik wynalazcy, Wydawnictwo "Krajowa Izba

Gospodarcza”, p.

10. Rozporządzenie Rady (WE) NR 6/2002 z dnia 12 grudnia 2001 r. w sprawie wzorów

wspólnotowych dyrektywa nr 32002R0006 (Dz.U. 2008 nr 68 poz. 414) http://eur-

lex.europa.eu.

11. Shenkar O., 2010: Copycats, How Smart Companies Use Imitation to Gain a Strategic

Edge, Harvard Business Review Press:

http://www.getabstract.com/en/summary/leadership-and-management/copycats/13339

12. SN, OSP 1998 – wyrok SN z 25 marca 1997 roku, III CKN 11/97, publ. OSP 1998 z.

7-8; por. Wyrok SA w Warszawie z 11.07.2012 r.(I ACa 1228/11, LEX nr 1238167)

13. Tischner A., Zakaz nieuczciwego naśladownictwa w art. 13 u.z.n.k. w kontekście

rozbudowanej ochrony postaci produktu w prawie własności intelektualnej

z uwzględnieniem prawa UE, I Polski Kongres Prawa Konkurencji,

http://www.1pkpk.wz.uw.edu.pl/working_papers/A_Tischner_Nasladownictwo.pdf

14. UP RP - Polish Patent Office - http://www.uprp.pl/kiedy-wzor-przemyslowy-moze-

uzyskac-ochrone/Lead05,156,1789,4,index,pl,text/

15. Ustawa z dnia 16 kwietnia 1993 r. o zwalczaniu nieuczciwej konkurencji (Dz.U. 1993

nr 47 poz. 211 z póxn. zm.)

16. Ustawa z dnia 30 czerwca 2000 r. Prawo własności przemysłowej (Dz.U. 2001 nr 49

poz. 508 z późn. zm.).

Streszczenie: W branży meblarskiej bardzo często spotyka się z próbami naśladowania

produktów i naruszania wzorów przemysłowych. Dlatego też dobre wzornictwo wymaga

ochrony oraz strategii na rozwój jego wartości. Wiele polskich firm chroni jedynie swoje

rozwiązania w oparciu o ustawę o zwalczaniu nieuczciwej konkurencji, jednakże nie jest to

wystarczająca ochrona przed naśladownictwem. W polskim prawie przewidziana została

bowiem zasada wolności naśladownictwa rozwiązań zastosowanych przez konkurentów, o ile

nie wprowadzają klientów w błąd lub nie zostały zastrzeżone jako prawa wyłączne.

W artykule ukazano rozwiązania, które mogą wzmocnić pozycję firmy na rynku i pogłębić

świadomość klienta o niepowtarzalności i wyjątkowości oferowanego produktu, a przede

wszystkim dają ochronę przed kopiowaniem i naruszeniem charakterystycznego designu.

Corresponding author:

Izabela Podobas

Zakład Przedsiębiorczości w Przemyśle Drzewnym

Wydział Technologii Drewna SGGW

ul. Nowoursynowska 159

02-776 Warszawa, Poland

e- mail: [email protected]

122


Compression strength parallel to grain of structural ekki wood ANNA POLICIŃSKA-SERWA*, PAWEŁ KOZAKIEWICZ**, SŁAWOMIR KRZOSEK** * Department of Structures and Building Elements, Building Research Institute − ITB, 21 Ksawerów St., 02-656 Warsaw **Department of Wood Science and Wood Protection, Faculty of Wood Technology, Warsaw University of Life Sciences - SGGW, 159 Nowoursynowska St., 02-776 Warsaw Abstract: Compression strength parallel to grain of structural ekki wood. Due to its extreme natural durability, high density and strength parameters, ekki wood is a well-known structural material, appreciated in Western Europe and used, among other things, in bridge building. This work establishes the density and compression strength parallel to the grain, using large samples and two types of small samples. The obtained results will confirm the good mechanical properties of ekki wood and the possibility of classifying its compression strength into the highest class of deciduous structural wood. Keywords: ekki wood, structural timber, density, compression strength, grading classes INTRODUCTION Ekki wood (also known as azobe in Polish and French and Bongossi in German acc. to EN 13556:2003) is obtained from the wood of Lophira alata Banks ex Gaertn. f. species (synonym Lophira procera A.Chev.) from the Ochnaceae family, growing in Africa from Guinea to Congo. In good growth conditions, the trees reach the height of even up to 40–50 m and a trunk diameter of up to 1.3 m and even 1.6 m, providing useful raw material for obtaining structural sawn timber with a large cross-section dimension (Wagenführ 2007). Ekki is a very dense wood with high strength parameters (Phongphaew 2003, Wagenführ 2007, Kozakiewicz 2009), which gives it its common name of ironwood. According to EN 350-2:1994, the ekki heart-wood has the highest natural fungus resistance class (class 1 – which means very durable wood) and is considered resistant to termites and other xylophages. The discussed wood is particularly durable when working in a water environment, including seawater. It is resistant, among others, to shipworm (Tredo navalis L.).

Due to its excellent strength properties and extreme natural durability, ekki is widely used as a structural material. In the countries where it is harvested and in Western Europe, ekki wood is used to construct harbour protection and bridge elements, such as piles and supports, as well as wharf structures, such as promenades, platforms, piers and garden structures, e.g. footbridges and bridges (Kozakiewicz 2009).

The widespread use of this wood in structures was reflected, among others, in the documentation of various standards. The requirements concerning visual ekki wood sorting class are provided in the Dutch NEN 5480:1980 standard and the British BS 5756:2007 standard. The former applies only to ekki wood, and the latter applies only to the methods for sorting and classification of up to 12 types of exotic wood, including ekki. The consolidating element is the EN 1912:2012 standard, which applies to structural wood. It assigns individual sorting classes from the visual sorting according to the standards in force in individual European countries and in the USA and Canada to specific strength classes (defined in the EN 338:2009 standard). The azobe wood (A/B class according to the Dutch NEN 5480:1980 standard and HS class according to the British BS 5756:1997 standard) was qualified as D60 class, with guaranteed compression strength parallel to the grain equal to 32 MPa. Research is currently conducted concerning the mechanical properties of full size structural elements

123

made of ekki wood, in order to establish correlations e.g. between the density, bending strength and shearing strength and the modulus of elasticity (Kuilen and Blass 2005). The results indicate that assigning ekki wood to the D60 class may be overly cautious, since it meets the requirements of the highest strength class, D70. The only limit seems to be high shrinkage of the ekki wood, and the related tendency to crack (Kozakiewicz 2009).

The undertaken testing was intended to establish specific properties of the ekki wood: humidity, density and compression strength parallel to the grain and referring the obtained results to the EN 338:2009 standard requirements. MATERIAL AND METHODS The tests used ekki wood from 8 logs, from which identical small laboratory specimens were obtained, with the dimensions of 20x20x120 mm (meeting the requirements of the PN-EN 408+A1:2012 standard) and 20x20x25 mm (meeting the requirements of a non-standard own method, based on a methodology that was phased out), as well as technical samples with the dimensions of full structural elements, 200x200x200 mm, cut out in accordance with the grain of main anatomical cross-sections (last dimension along the grain). During testing, the same strength testing machine head traverse time was used, in accordance with the PN-EN 408+A1:2012 standard, i.e. 0.5 mm/min, which resulted in the destruction of samples in approximately 5 minutes. Testing using both methods was intended to establish the actual parameters and confronting the results of testing with the selected literature data (e.g. Wagenfur 2007), from the period when the current testing methodology (PN-EN 408) was not yet in force. The tests were conducted on dry wood, but in humidity close to 20% – typical for the use of wood in bridge structures. The wood density was established for two humidity levels: operational humidity of approx. 20% and standard (ISO 13061-2:2014) humidity, i.e. in the air dried condition, of approx. 12%. Humidity was established in accordance with ISO 13061-2:2014 and PN-EN 13183-1:2004.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The results of the conducted testing were presented in Table 1, and the representative

images of specimen destruction after the compression test was conducted – in Figure 1. Average humidity of ekki wood amounted to 19.8%, with a standard deviation of 1.6%.

The wood humidity variability coefficient amounted to 8.2% and should be considered low (even humidity of the tested wood batch). The humidity of the point of saturation of the ekki wood grain is similar to the species from the temperate climate zone and amounts to approx. 28% (Kozakiewicz 2009), which is why the value obtained during the testing can be interpreted as equivalent humidity for the air temperature of approx. 8oC and relative air humidity of more than 80% (the average annual temperature and relative humidity of the air in Poland).

The tested ekki wood with operational humidity (approx. 20%) had an average density equal to 1,124 kg/m3 (standard deviation of 24 kg/m3) with a very low variability coefficient of 2.1%. The tested lot of the material was uniform in density. The obtained ekki wood density with a standard density (12%) amounted to an average of 1,080 kg/m3 while maintaining a very low variability coefficient (1.5%). The obtained density of the tested wood fits within the range of typical variability of density of the species in question in the air dried condition provided in the literature, i.e. 970 to 1,150 kg/m3, and is close to the average value of this range, i.e. 1,070 kg/m3 (Wagenführ 2007, Kozakiewicz 2009). Thus, in this aspect the tested lot of the material should be considered typical and representative for the Lophira alata

Banks ex Gaertn. f. species.

124

Table 1. Listing of the ekki wood testing results Property Test method Test results – value:

1 2 3

compression strength parallel to the grain, MPa

at average humidity of 19.8%

acc. to PN-EN 408+A1:2012 specimen dimensions:

20x20x120 mm Number of specimens: 47 pcs.

average 55.3 characteristic calculations acc. to PN-EN 14358:2007

47

according to the Building Research Institute’s method,

specimen dimensions: 20x20x25 mm

Number of specimens 31 pcs.

average 58.7

characteristic calculations acc. to PN-EN 14358:2007

48

according to the Building Research Institute’s method,

specimen dimensions: 200x200x200 mm

Number of specimens 8 pcs

average 61.3

characteristic calculations acc. to PN-EN 14358:2007

60

Density, kg/m3 at average humidity of

19.8% acc. to ISO 3131-1975-11-01

average 1,120 characteristic calculations acc. to PN-EN 14358:2007

1,080

Density, kg/m3 in 12% humidity

acc. to ISO 3131-1975-11-01 ISO 13061-2:2014

average 1,080 characteristic calculations acc. to PN-EN 384:2011

1,050

Humidity, % (on delivery) acc. to PN-EN 13183-1:2004

ISO 13061-1:2014 average 19.8

Characteristic values established as 5th percentile of the distribution

Average compression strength parallel to the grain at the operational humidity of

approx. 20% of small laboratory specimens with dimensions in accordance with PN-EN 408+A1:2012 and shorter with dimensions of 20x20x25 mm is similar and amounts to respectively 55.3 MPa and 58.7 MPa whereas characteristic strength is almost identical and amounts to 47 and 48 MPa. The obtained results are significantly lower than the average value provided in the literature amounting to approx. 100 MPa (Phongphaew 2003, Wagenführ 2007, Kozakiewicz 2009). However, it should be noted that the literature data apply to wood in the air dried condition with humidity of approx. 12%.

Along with the decrease of wood humidity and the hygroscopic range, a linear increase of its compression strength along the grain occurs, noticeable in particular in dense wood species. This increase amounts to approx. 3 Mpa per each 1% of humidity decrease in the hygroscopic range (Kozakiewicz 2010). Taking into account the aforementioned correction, the estimated compression strength along the grain of the tested ekki wood would amount to over 90 MPa at a humidity of approx. 12%, which is within the range of variability of the characteristic in question provided in the literature (Wagenführ 2007, Kozakiewicz 2009).

The compression strength along the grain with an operational humidity of approx. 20% with cross-section dimensions similar to full sized structural elements turned out to be higher compared to small specimens and amounted to an average of 61.3 MPa with a characteristic strength equal to 60 MPa. Usually, full-sized specimens have an approx. 5–10% smaller strength compared to small specimens, due to the presence of structural defects which is difficult to avoid (Graf 1928). Two factors have contributed to the inverse relation that was observed. Small specimens had the shapes of elongated rectangular prisms, and the large specimens had a cube shape. According to the tests conducted by Baumann (1922), the average compression strength along the grain of elongated cuboids with a relationship of the side height to the side of a square base of 3 to 6 equals approx. 93% of the strength of cube

125

samples (when compressing cube specimens the reinforcing influence of pressures appears). The grain deviations frequently present in the ekki wood (Kozakiewicz 2009) are the second factor. These deviations in samples with larger cross-sections compensate for each other, and in smaller ones cover the entire cross-section, acting similarly to a slope of the grain. This is confirmed by observed types of wood damage in specimens undergoing compression (Fig. 1). In small samples, they are usually of a shear type, and in large – mainly shear with splitting or shear with cracking. This type of damage is also described in the ASTM 143-94:2000 standard, characteristic for high density wood (Kozakiewicz 2010). a) b)

Figure 1. Images of typical damage to ekki wood samples after compression testing along the grain (marking the type of damage according to ASTM143-94:2000: a) small laboratory specimens, b) large technical specimens)

The obtained compression strength along the grain for ekki wood are significantly higher than the requirements established in the EN 338:2009 standard for the D60 class. The tested wood also meets, with a large margin, the requirements for the highest deciduous wood class (D70), with the guaranteed compression strength along the grain equal to 34 MPa. This supports the conclusions made by Kuilen and Blass (2005) on the possibility of assigning ekki wood to the D70 class.

CONCLUSIONS Based on the conducted tests of structural ekki wood (Lophira alata Banks ex Gaertn.

f.), the following conclusions were obtained: 1. Ekki wood is a high density wood (more than 1,000 kg/m3) also in the air dried condition. 2. The average compression strength along the grain with an operational humidity of approx. 20% in each case (specimen dimension class) exceeded 55 MPa. 3. The dominant type of damage to the specimen undergoing compression testing along the grain is shear, shear with splitting or shear with cracking. 4. The characteristic compression strength along the grain of the ekki wood allows its classification in the highest deciduous structural wood, D70 acc. to EN 338:2009.

126

REFERENCES 1. ASTM 143-94:2000 Standard test methods for small clear specimens of timber. 2. BAUMANN R., 1922: Die bisherigen Ergebnisse der Holzprüfungen in der

Materialprüfungsanstalt an der Technischen Hochschule Stuttgart. Heft 231 der Forschungsarbeiten auf dem Gebiete des Ingenieurwesens. Berlin.

3. BS 5756:2007+A1:2011 Visual strength grading of hardwood. 4. EN 338:2009 Structural timber - strength classes. 5. EN 350-2:1994 Durability of wood and wood-based products — Natural durability of

solid wood — Part 2: Guide to natural durability and treatability of selected wood species of importance in Europe.

6. EN 1912:2012/AC:2013 Structural Timber - Strength classes - Assignment of visual grades and species.

7. ISO 13061-1:2014 Physical and mechanical properties of wood - Test methods for small clear wood specimens - Part 1: Determination of moisture content for physical and mechanical tests.

8. ISO 13061-2:2014 Physical and mechanical properties of wood - Test methods for small clear wood specimens - Part 2: Determination of density for physical and mechanical tests.

9. EN 13556:2003 Round and sawn timber – Nomenclature of timbers used in Europe. 10. GRAF O., 1928: Bauholz. Aus den Ergebnissen der seit 1914 in Deutschland

ausgeführten Versuche mit Holz. Bauingenieur. 11. KOZAKIEWICZ P., 2009: Azobe (Lophira alata Banks ex Gaertn.f) – drewno

egzotyczne z Ameryki Południowej. Przemysł Drzewny nr 9 2009, s.15-18. Wydawnictwo Świat.

12. KOZAKIEWICZ P., 2010: Wpływ temperatury i wilgotności na wytrzymałość na ściskanie wzdłuż włókien wybranych rodzajów drewna o zróżnicowanej gęstości i budowie anatomicznej. Trzysta siedemdziesiąta pozycja serii – Rozprawy Naukowe i Monografie. Wydawnictwo SGGW, Warszawa.

13. KUILEN J.W.G., Blass H.J. 2005: Mechanical properties of azobé (Lophira alata). Holz als Roh- und Werkstoff 63: 1-10.

14. NEN 5480:1980 Kwaliteitseisen voor hout (KVH 1980) – Houtsoort Azobé. 15. PHONGPHAEW P., 2003: The commercial woods of Africa. Linden Publishing Co.

Inc. Fresno, California. 16. PN−EN 408+A1:2012 Konstrukcje drewniane. Drewno konstrukcyjne lite i klejone

warstwowo, oznaczenie niektórych właściwości fizycznych i mechanicznych. 17. PN-EN 13183-1:2004 Wilgotność sztuki tarcicy. Cz. 1 Oznaczanie wilgotności

metodą suszarkowo –wagową. 18. WAGENFÜHR R., 2007: Holzatlas.6., neu bearbeitete und erweitere Auflage. Mit

zahlreichen Abbildungen. Fachbuchverlag Leipzig im Carl Hanser Verlag.

127

Streszczenie: Wytrzymałość na ściskanie wzdłuż włókien konstrukcyjnego drewna azobe. Drewno azobe (nazwa angielskojęzyczna ekki) ze względu na najwyższą naturalną trwałość oraz wysoką gęstość i parametry wytrzymałościowe jest znanym i cenionym w Europie Zachodniej materiałem konstrukcyjnym używanym miedzy innymi w mostownictwie. W ramach niniejszej pracy określono gęstość oraz wytrzymałość na ściskanie wzdłuż włókien z użyciem dużych próbek i dwóch rodzajów małych próbek. Uzyskane wyniki potwierdzą wysokie właściwości mechaniczne drewna azobe i możliwości jego zakwalifikowania według EN 338:2009 również pod względem wytrzymałości na ściskanie do najwyższej klasy liściastego drewna konstrukcyjnego D70. Corresponding authors: Anna Policińska−Serwa Building Research Institute Department of Structures and Building Elements 02-656 Warsaw, ul. Ksawerów 21 e-mail: [email protected] Paweł Kozakiewicz Department of Wood Sciences and Wood Protection Faculty of Wood Technology Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW 159 Nowoursynowska St. 02-776 Warsaw, Poland email: [email protected] http://pawel_kozakiewicz.users.sggw.pl phone: +48 22 59 38 647 Sławmoir Krzosek Department of Wood Sciences and Wood Protection Faculty of Wood Technology Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW 159 Nowoursynowska St. 02-776 Warsaw, Poland email: [email protected] phone: +48 22 59 38 633

128

Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW

Forestry and Wood Technology № 93, 2016: 128-134

(Ann. WULS - SGGW, For. and Wood Technol. 93, 2016)

Challenges development of the Polish furniture industry in the world

AGNIESZKA ROLA-JARZĘBOWSKA

Abstract: The furniture industry in Poland is growing very rapidly, reaching a year-on-year better and better

export performance. Polish companies from the furniture industry are faced with many challenges, especially in a

situation of higher growth in production and export of furniture from developing countries. Companies in the

furniture industry should start to create added value to manufactured furniture. A lot of work is also to perform in

the area of brand building products and its awareness among foreign customers. The competitiveness of Polish

products of furniture can be improved by increasing cooperation manufacturing companies with experts from

various fields: designers, engineers, specialists in design and ergonomics. Greater funding also requires the area

of research and development and appreciation of investment in human capital.

Keywords: furniture sector, export, competitiveness, challenges the furniture industry

1. CONDITION OF THE POLISH FURNITURE SECTOR

Poland is at present the third largest furniture country at the European level. The sector

workforce is made of around 150,000 employees (it ranks first at the EU level in terms of

employment) employed in 24,000 companies (about 100 are the large companies employing

more than 250 people; about 350 medium-sized companies employing from 50 to 250 people

and about 1500 small businesses employing between 10 and 50 people, the rest are micro-

enterprises). In 2012 the value of production was 90% higher than ten years before. The

achievement of this target was possible thanks to the long-standing tradition of furniture

manufacturing and the collective efforts of many companies, both large firms and a host of

small and medium-sized companies, mostly family businesses created after the change in the

political system in 1989. Thanks to these changes, the Polish furniture industry was almost

entirely privatized. Investments from foreign corporations (mainly, but not only, German

ones) were the driver that led to sharp increases in furniture production and in the level of

expertise. The past and on-going mergers with foreign companies has promoted the transfer of

technology, and has also helped to promote the expertise of Polish firms abroad, allowing

them to benefit from improved access to international distribution networks.

Figure 1. Each exporter's percentage of global furniture exports (in 2014) (Source: World’s richest countries,

Top Furniture Exporters 2014, www.worldsrichestcountries.com)

38.2

7.4

5.9

4.9

4.8

42.7

2 1.8 1.7China

Germany

Italy

Poland

USA

Mexico

Vietnam

Canada

Czech Republic

129

Polish furniture industry is under development for many years. Poland is a large

furniture manufacturer and a major exporter of furniture, ranks fourth as the largest exporter

of furniture in the world, with a share of 4.9% of global exports (Figure 1). Year 2015 ended

with very good results for the Polish furniture industry. The value of sold production of

furniture was 39 billion zł, 36.4 billion zł in 2014. An increase of 7 points rates [B+R Studio].

This result meant that Poland was on the 6th place among the world's largest manufacturers of

furniture, surpassing the United Kingdom. The production ahead of us giants, such as China,

USA, Germany, Italy and India (Table 1).

Table 1. Major furniture manufacturers in the world in 2015 (in billions euros)

(Source: Polskie Meble Outlook, B+R Studio, 2016)

Polish furniture industry is recognized as a leader in the production of furniture in the

international arena. It is ranked 4th in the world in terms of exports of furniture and is behind

such powers as China, Germany and Italy (Table 2). Furniture industry generates

approximately 30 billion positive balance of foreign trade, which is the highest among all

sectors of the Polish economy. Furniture production in Poland is a vital part of the economy,

the importance of greater than is the average in the European Union (furniture industry in

2014 was four times more important for the Polish economy than the European Union

average) [Wiktorski, Adamowicz, p. 8]

Table 1. Top furniture exporters in 2014 (value in billions of USD)

(Source: World’s richest countries, Top Furniture Exporters 2014, www.worldsrichestcountries.com)

0

50

100

150

200

15

9.9

4

35

.44

16

.92

14

.97

11

.42

9.1

7

7.6

8

7.3

3

6.8

0

6.7

8

0.0

20.0

40.0

60.0

80.0

100.093.4

18.2 14.4 11.9 11.8 9.7 6.7 4.9 4.4 4.2

130

Table 3. Export furniture products (in million zł )

(Source: Statistical Yearbook of Industry Poland 2015, Central Statistical Office, 2015, Warsaw)

Year 2010 2013 2014

total

developed countries countries

of Central

and

Eastern

Europe

developing

countries total

of which

Europea

n Union

Furniture 22 747,0 29 404,6 33 255,3 31 190,8 28 446,6 936,6 1 127,9

According to data of the Central Statistical Office, Polish producers exported in 2014,

furniture worth 33 255 million zł (in 2014 exported more than 10 thousand more furniture

than in 2010), mostly exported to European Union countries (the value of exported goods 28

446.6 mln zł), much less to developing countries and countries in Central and Eastern Europe

(Table 3). The main recipient of the furniture from the Polish are European Union countries

with the highest share of Germany.

2. FACTORS OF COMPETITIVENESS OF FURNITURE PRODUCTION

Competition in the furniture market is not based solely on the criterion of price but

also applies to other attributes of activity, as the quality of the finished product (design,

durability, strength) and those related to the course of the production process (eg. the use of

performance of manual elements, environmentally friendly, socially sustainable). This opens

different opportunities for market segmentation and communication and marketing strategies

tailored to different types of consumers.

The main factors affecting competitiveness include the availability of raw materials

and skilled labour and investment in tangible goods such as machinery and equipment.

Intangible investments in innovation and design also play a decisive role. The combination of

these factors for the production of items at competitive prices is another key element [The EU

Furniture…, p.66]. Polish companies have access to a rich resource base. Over the years they

have also made investments in modern equipment needed in the manufacturing process. In the

production of furniture large part of the expenses are personnel costs associated with the work

of the people. For this reason, many companies in Western Europe moves part of production

to Eastern Europe, where labor costs are lower. Poland as one of the largest furniture

manufacturers employ one of the largest number of people in the furniture industry in Europe.

Compared to the countries of the European Union in Polish salaries are among the lowest

(lower only receive workers from Bulgaria, Romania, Latvia, Lithuania and Hungary).

The main factor necessary to be competitive in the furniture industry is having

competence. Employees should possess strong business competencies such as supply chain

management, the development of new business models, and in the face of globalization are

also necessary language skills (foreign languages), and intercultural communication. The

furniture industry needs qualified engineers who can use and operate the highly automated

equipment, knowing the properties of new materials and able to work well with designers.

Cooperation companies of the furniture industry with designers is a key factor of success in

the international market. It not only allows you to create a distinctive offer in terms of design

and ergonomics which increases the attractiveness of furniture, but also allows you to create

furniture for attractive segment of high value (value addend segments). The cooperation of

engineers of designers also gives the opportunity to make full use of available applications

and create innovative products [The EU Furniture…, p.78].

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R&D and innovation are crucial factors to maintain market positions. This is made

necessary by consumers’ changing needs and market pressure. Furniture manufacturers should

follow the changing tastes and new consumer needs. Producers of the greatest care to adapt its

products (eg. for different types of rooms), the ergonomics and functionality. Eco-issues are

also becoming increasingly important. Together with new consumer needs and products

trends, the globalisation of the furniture industry and the difficulties experienced by European

firms in competing with the prices of Asian imports have moved the design function to the

forefront. European manufacturers now regard design as the best means of differentiating their

products from mass production and of acquiring access to the high-income market segments.

Design is indeed widely recognised as offering furniture producers a competitive advantage

that can counterbalance the price advantage of low-wage countries. Europe accounts for over

80% of global sales of design luxury furniture. The share of R&D staff in the total number of

employees in the furniture industry in the European Union average of 0.7% (while in the EU-

15 0.9%) [The EU Furniture…, p.82], Poland compared to other European countries, was at

that time one of the lowest shares of only 0.2%. This is an area in need of improvement.

3. THE CHALLENGE OF POLISH PRODUCERS OF FURNITURE

For many years, we are made to travel Polish furniture on world markets. Polish

furniture manufacturers operate in organized structures based on cooperation at various levels

of decision-making. Promotional activities are carried out by the Polish Chamber of

Commerce, the National Chamber of Commerce of Furniture Manufacturers Departments of

Trade and Investment Promotion at the Polish Embassies around the world, the participation

of producers in the International Fair in Poznan. Above all, however, the Polish furniture

manufacturers are trying to be present at the fair in the world. These actions have led to the

development of a significant and strong position of the Polish furniture all over the Word

[Wiktorski, Adamowicz, p. 5-6]. This was possible due to the skilful combination of the high

technical culture of production, translating into the adequate product quality, production

flexibility, more and more efficient logistics, resources of the management having knowledge

of the furniture craft, natural resources such as wood and low labour costs [Bielecka, p. 25].

Poland has a huge production potential, but companies in the sector receive relatively

lower prices for manufactured products. Poland is an attractive place to locate production of

furniture for global corporations furniture, however, it is not perceived as a place where you

create added value to the furniture. Comparing the volumes and prices of furniture exported

from Polish, German or Italian, you will find that if companies from this sector could create

furniture with a reputation and product quality Italian or German that industry revenue would

increase to 100% (due to a pre-from analyzes conducted by the B+R Studio) [Kowalik, 2016].

Furniture industry in Poland is performing well, but the analysis of performance

indicators against the background of European Union Countries does not look so favorably.

The turnover per employee in Poland against Germany, Italy and France are about 63 percent.

lower, and even in relation to Spain, which is in recession, more than 30 percent. lower.

Polish companies in the industry can boast the relatively low personnel costs per employee,

however, developing countries still have lower costs (eg. Romania and Lithuania)

[Rutkowski, p.3]. Low-cost place Poland as a good and cheap furniture contractor for foreign

brands. It can be said that Polish producers are valued because of the lower cost of

manufacture of furniture. On the other hand this is a threat in the face of the expansion of

developing countries that can offer a more competitive cost performance. Before the Polish

companies is thus a serious task of building brand products and create added value, because

only these actions will allow competition in the global furniture market in the future. Many

authors believe that the biggest challenge faced by Polish manufacturers of furniture is the

creation of added value to our products.

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Polish companies producing furniture faced with the problem of creating brand

awareness. Foreign customers are willing to buy furniture manufactured in Poland, mainly

due to the lower cost and relatively high quality. Customer from Western Europe, however,

has a problem of confidence in the Polish product, simultaneously uses it, but there is no

awareness of the country of origin. Experts say that although we are the power of Polish

furniture brand are not recognizable retail recipients are not aware that the product was

manufactured in Poland. Only a few Polish manufacturers sell products under their own

brands, the vast majority of products offers no indication of the country from which they

come. Polish furniture manufacturers should put more effort into raising awareness of foreign

customers, where they come from used their furniture, because we are now attractive in terms

of locating factories, but we are not associating the customer with the product itself. Foreign

companies want to invest with us their production because of the good geographic location, as

well as easy and still cheap access to raw materials and skilled labor. However, only 20% of

Polish manufacturers create their own brand, and 80% produce patterns entrusted, which

carries out projects commissioned by the Western partners.

Polish furniture manufacturers still have a problem with foreign customers trust and

the image of Polish as a country branded products. They take the position of realization of a

safe design ensures sales volume. Cooperation with designers furniture is received by the

majority of micro, small and medium-sized companies do not obtain a market advantage, and

as unjustified risks. There are also sufficient efforts among manufacturers and designers

whose works are appreciated in foreign markets, in international competitions and prestigious

exhibitions. Companies from Western Europe prefer to use the services of designers

consciously adding their names to the names of the series, thus raising the prestige and

attractiveness of the furniture.

Furniture manufacturers should therefore implement measures that will result in

greater recognition of Polish brands and build consumer awareness of the Polish means good.

In the present system of production and sales we are treated as honest and inexpensively artist,

and this makes it difficult to Polish companies to competition from developing countries,

which are still favorable cost structure of production. However, this result should be taken

much action. The activities should be carried out on several levels. There will be sufficient

motivation of the producers themselves, it is necessary system activities supported by state

organizations and the Polish Government.

Polish managers of furniture companies see the need for a new approach to business,

in which indigenous companies should become European companies. The most important

factor determining the success of the company on the international market: How will be

organized business activity, less importance can be modern and sophisticated design of the

furniture. Owner Forte, Maciej Formowicz, states that "you have to get out of the limited way

of thinking, where the basic issue is whether it will ensure that the manufacturing process for

the contractor. If you want to be in Europe, you have to work as a European company." The

manager is convinced of the need to build own brand and emphasizes the role of having own,

well-organized distribution network. In his opinion, these factors will introduce the greatest

Polish producers to the state in which they will be able to become an equal competitor for

foreign companies. A large part of Polish companies producing furniture manufactures them

in order (as a subcontractor), not building its own brand as a manufacturer, and own brand is

the creation of a huge capital. Create your own brand gives you the perspective of a greater

opportunity to compete with the powers in the production of furniture (such as Germany and

Italy), but also with developing countries, which have lower production costs.

According to data from surveys of consumer behavior in the market of furniture [a

study conducted on a group of 5072 consumers in the European Union (Italy, Germany,

France, Austria, United Kingdom, Poland, the Netherlands, Romania, Sweden, and Spain),

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countries were selected on the basis of the following criteria: 1) consumption rate of furniture

products; 2) presence of an initiative in the furniture sector; 3) geographical balance, The EU

Furniture…, p.138-151] that only 20-25% of the low price is the key factor for buying

furniture. For more than 60% of "design of the product fitting consumers' taste or purpose" is

the most important factor in their selection and purchase of furniture. Surprisingly the least

important criterion, respondents recognized product brand . This criterion has emerged as the

most important purchase in only 10-15% of the respondents (first and second position).

Despite the declaration of the survey respondents little importance given to the product brand,

customers equate design, durability, comfort furniture with specific manufacturers.

Surveyed consumers were also asked whether they would be willing to pay more for a

furniture product with certain characteristics. High standards of durability rank first (82% of

respondents), followed by ease of maintenance (78% of respondents) and by the guarantee

that the product is friendly to human health (75%). Sustainability requirements have an

intermediate position, with 56% of respondents declaring that they would be willing to pay

more for a product that was made respecting fair labour conditions and that is environmentally

friendly.

Poland uses a large production potential in the furniture industry. To companies in the

sector to flourish in the global markets and successfully compete for customers with global

furniture manufacturers should be gradually introduced changes in the model of business and

in terms of their participation in the global trading furniture. Companies from the need to also

support activities promoting Polish brands in global markets.

SUMMARY

The Polish furniture industry has greatly developed after the political changes in 1989.

Today is in excellent condition, boasts a large volume of production and exports of

manufactured products. However, to take full advantage of the opportunity in front of which

stands Poland as a world leader in the manufacture of furniture should be amended, to

implement measures that will allow to maintain the leading position and competitiveness on

increasingly powerful rivals, both with countries that today are powers (Germany, Italy) as

well as those who very rapidly develop (eg. Brazil, Lithuania). The most important challenges

facing the Polish furniture industry include:

1. The promotion of Polish as a reliable manufacturer of furniture. It consists mainly

offer good quality furniture, but also furniture stand out from the others. To Polish

companies could boast a reputation in overseas markets must begin to build their own

brand, promote the Polish furniture.

2. Creating added value to manufactured furniture. The break with the image of the

followers of practice introduced in countries such as Italy and Germany. This process

requires the creation of mechanisms for generating added value, close cooperation

between skilled and experienced professionals, designers and business owners who

take the risk of the introduction of new, original projects. This will enable to build

confidence in Polish brands and create a Polish image as a global manufacturer of

furniture.

3. Cooperation with various, often remote environments. The cooperation of specialists

from different fields could result in the creation of comfortable furniture, nice and the

price at which the consumer wants and can be purchased. The point is not to create

only furniture luxury, but rather to create furniture adapted and targeted to the

consumer segment.

4. Entering new markets. Today, the main direction of exports are the EU countries, and

to commit to the development of the markets, which apparently seem unattractive but

promising for the future, emerging economies.

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5. Increasing investment in skills, design, creativity, research, innovation and new

technologies can lead to new products that are in line with the changing lifestyle of the

population, trends and needs. This will help the creation of new business models and

supplier - consumer relationship.

6. Increasing the share of personnel responsible for the area of research and development.

Increased funding in these areas. This will enable the development of advanced

production technology, and this may lead to the creation of innovative and advanced

products that would give the sector more attractive, necessary to attract new and

younger employees to work.

Streszczenie: Wyzwania rozwoju polskiego przemysłu meblarskiego na świecie Streszczenie:

Branża meblarska w Polsce rozwija się bardzo dynamicznie osiągając z roku na rok coraz

lepsze wyniki eksportu. Polskie firmy z branży meblarskiej stoją jednak w obliczu wielu

wyzwań, szczególnie w sytuacji wzrostu dynamiki produkcji i eksportu mebli z krajów

rozwijających się. Firmy z branży meblarskiej powinny zacząć tworzyć wartość dodaną do

produkowanych mebli. Dużo pracy jest także do wykonania w obszarze budowania marki

produktów i jej świadomości u klientów zagranicznych. Konkurencyjność polskich

produktów meblarskich można poprawić dzięki zwiększeniu współpracy firm produkcyjnych

z ekspertami z różnych dziedzin: projektanci, inżynierowie, specjaliści od projektowania i

ergonomii. Większego finansowania wymaga również obszar badań i rozwoju i docenienie

inwestycji w kapitał ludzki.

REFERENCES

1. Polska wśród meblarskich liderów, Forbes 24.09.2013, http://www.forbes.pl/polska-

czwarta-pod-wzgledem-wartosci-eksportu-mebli,artykuly,162287,1,1.html

2. Wiktorski T., Adamowicz M., 2014: Meble > Polska Inteligentna Specjalizacja,

Raport Specjalny, OIGPM, B+R Studio Analizy Rynku Meblarskiego.

3. Bielecka M., 2014: Promotion of the Polish furniture industry abroad, Annals of

Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW, Forestry and Wood Technology, No

88, 2014, p. 23-27.

4. Polskie Meble Outlook 2016, 2016: B+R Studio Analizy Rynku Meblarskiego przy

współpracy z OIGPM, http://www.oigpm.org.pl/

5. Kowalik F, 2016: Polscy meblarze urządzają Europę, Forbes, nr.01,2016,

http://www.forbes.pl/forte-nowy-styl-paged-polscy-meblarze-urzadzaja-

europe,artykuly,201245,1,1.html

6. Rutkowski M., 2016: Słowo wstępne, Biuletyn Informacyjny, OIGPM, 03, 2016,

http://www.oigpm.org.pl/art/files/176

7. The EU Furniture Market Situation and a Possible Furniture Products Initiative, 2014:

CEPS, Economisti Associati, CSIL and Demetra Economics,

http://ec.europa.eu/growth/sectors/raw-materials/industries/forest-based/furniture/

Corresponding author:

Agnieszka Rola-Jarzębowska

email: [email protected]

phone: 511 195 510

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Исследования эффекта усиления минерального основания для

деревянных полов посредством шлифования и грунтования.

VALERJAN ROMANOVSKI, PAWEŁ KOZAKIEWICZ, MARIUSZ MAMIŃSKI, ALBINA JEGOROWA Факультет Технологии Древесины, Варшавский Университет Естественных Наук – SGGW

Краткое изложение: Исследования эффекта усиления минерального основания для деревянных полов

посредством шлифования и грунтования. На долговечность деревянных полов влияет много факторов, среди них важное значение имеет прочность минерального основания. В рамках данной работы определено в какой степени шлифование и грунтование влияет на прочностные параметры цементного минерального основания, исходно имеющего более низкую износостойкость от требуемой. Посредством подбора различных укрепляющих грунтов стремились получить параметры позволяющие приклеивать деревянные дощечки к основанию. Определено, что в результате шлифования, а также грунтования можно усилить цементное основание. Полученный эффект усиления зависит от вида грунта и способа подготовки основания. Ключевые слова: деревянные полы, долговечность, клеевой шов, основание цементно-минеральное, долговечность деревянных полов, дощечка из массивной древесины. ВВЕДЕНИЕ

Деревянные дощечки для пола монтируются к основанию посредством предназначенных для этих целей клеев. Долговечность и жизнеспособность деревянного пола определяется, в первую очередь, качеством соединения с основанием (Romanovski 2014). Деревянная дощечка, в результате изменения влажности, в зависимости от времени года подвергается циклическим изменениям, т.е разбухает и усыхает, особенно в период начала и окончания отопительного сезона (Romanovski 2012, Kozakiewicz 2006, Kozakiewicz, Matejak 2013), генерирует силы сдвига, которые могут привести к повреждениям минерального основания или клеевого соединения. Долговечность клеевого соединения в зничительной степени зависит от состояния основания, от его плотности, а так же от соответсвующих прочностных характеристик на сдвиг и отрыв. Величина сил дейстующих на основание зависит от множества факторов таких как: размер дощечки (ширина, порода древесины (величина усушки), климат господствующий в помещении ( постоянный, изменчивый) так же вид клеевого соединения (жесткое, эластичное) (Custodio, Broughton, Cruz 2009, Romanovski 2014).

Целью исследований было определение влияния шлифования основания и его грунтования различными видами грунтов, на эффект усиления – возможность переноса сдвигающих и растягивающих напряжений при соединении с деревянными дощечками из массива дуба- наиболее популярная порода древесины применяемая в деревянных полах (Kozakiewicz, Pióro, Noskowiak 2012).

МЕТОДИКА ЭКСПЕРИМЕНТА

Для осуществления эксперимента было выбрано чердачное помещение, площадью 16,8 м2 в отдельностоящем здании. Согласно проекту, основание было предназначено для деревянных полов из массива, его толщина составила около 5 см. Основание изготовлено за 12 месяцев до начала эксперимента. Перед проведением исследований, электронным устройством Hydromette BL Compakt B фирмы Gann, определено место измерения влажности. Исследование влажности осуществлено

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весовым способом при температуре 1050 С и проверено на соответствие требованиям предъявляемым к сухим цементным основаниям (ITB 2014). Влажность сухого цементного основания должна быть менее 3%.

Для определения влияния шлифования, основание в ½ помещения было прошлифовано алмазными дисками и шлифовальными камнями, с применением однодисковой полировальной машинки Columbus 135. Шлифование позволило удалить верхний слой основания, которое затрудняло проникновение грунта внутрь. Согласно ITB (2014), минимальная прочность основания для деревянных полов из массива составляет 1,5 Н/мм2.

Основание было разделено на 7 частей (7 частей шлифованных и 7 частей не шлифованных), площадь одной части составила 2,1 м2. Каждый экспериментальный участок загрунтовали грунтами отличающимися по химическому составу (условные названия грунтов: Водная дисперсия, Растворимый, Полиуретан 1, Эпоксид 1, Силикат, Эпоксид 2, Полиуретен 2). Грунтование осуществлялось согласно технических карт производителей грунтов.

После высыхания грунтов, к основанию приклеивались образцы (деревянные дощечки из массива характеризующиеся одинаковыми плотностью и влажностью 7-9 %) различными типами клеев (рис.1), с сохранением системы соединения (грунт+клей) согласно рекомендаций производителей паркетной химии. Образцы оставлены до полного высыхания и отверждения клеевого шва. После отверждения, образцы отрывались с помощью приспособления PressoMess по сопроводительной инструкции (WOLFF GmbH2002). Это, рекомендуемый польской Ассоциацией Экспертов в области паркетов и деревянных полов (Związek Rzeczoznawców z zakresu parkieciarstwa i posa-dzek drewnianych), метод исследования прочности основания полов, с учетом характеристик работы деревянных элементов полового покрытия (Informacja Tech-niczna RZ-4:2011).

Рис.1. Участки для исследования различных грунтов, способ приклеивания образцов – деревянных дощечек из массива дуба.

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РЕЗУЛЬТАТЫ ИССЛЕДОВАНИЯ Влажность цементного основания перед шлифованием и грунтованием

определенная весовым способом составляла в среднем 1,51%. Минеральный цемент был соответсвующим образом высушен (соотвествующий в этом отношении требованиям ITB (2014) – подготовлен к шлифованию и грунтованию.

На рисунке 2 представлены образцы оторванных дощечек (с использованием присобления PressoMess) со слоем прилегающего цементного основания, к которому они были приклеены. В случае не шлифованного цементного основания потребовалась меньшая сила для отрыва образца нежели в случае шлифованного. Средняя прочность образцов на отрыв с использованием приспособления PressoMess составила 0,31 Н/мм2 (основание без шлифования) и 0,50 Н/мм2 (основание шлифованное). Более того, объем, толщина, а также масса (в среднем 2,21 г) прикрепленного к образцам (отрываемого с ними) основания была значительно меньше в случае без шлифования нежели с применением шлифования (3,50 г) – таблица 1. Это означает, что масса отрываемого с деревянной дощечкой основания предварительно шлифованного и грунтованного была в среднем более чем в 1,5 раза выше чем в случае только с грунтованием. Кроме того, обращает на себя внимание и большая изменчивость результатов характеризующая обе группы (коэффициент вариации более 35%) появляющаяся вероятнее всего, в результате использования различных типов грунтов и зернистой структуры цементного основания, которая вызывает определенную случайность в ходе возникновения в нем трещин.

В измерениях основания на прочность замечена значительная разница в полученных результатах. В случае основания не грунтованного, не шлифованного минимальное значение составило 0,10 Н/мм2, максимальное 0,6 Н/мм2 (стандартное отклонение 0,17), в случае основания шлифованного минимальное значение 0,3 Н/мм2, максимальный 1,2 Н/мм2 (стандартное отклонение 0,23). Различия обусловлены неоднородной структурой минирального цементного основания.

Рис.2. Вид образца – дощечки из массива оторванные от не грунтованного основания: с левой стороны образец со шлифованным основанием перед приклеиванием, с правой стороны основание без шлифования перед приклеиванием. Таблица 1. Результаты измерения массы не грунтованного основания оторванного вместе с дощечкой в двух вариантах исследования: основание не шлифованное, основание шлифованное

Характеристика основание не шлифованное основание шлифованное Средняя прочность на отрыв с использованием PressoMess [Н/мм2]

0,31 0,50

Стандартное отклонение [г] 0,17 0,23 Коэффициент вариации [%] 55 46 Масса оторванного основания – среднее значение из 14 измерений [г]

2,21

3,50

Стандартное отклонение [г] 0,85 1,23 Коэффициент вариации [%] 38,5 35,1

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Средняя прочность основания с грунтами различными по химическому составу представлена на рисунке 3. Образцы (деревянные дощечки из массива) отрывались от основания шлифованного и не шлифованного. Для основания загрунтованного наименьшее значение прочности на отрыв получено для дисперсионного грунта. В случае основания не шлифованного прочность составила в среднем 0,29 Н/мм2 в то время как для основания шлифованного достигла значения 0,83 Н/мм2. Наивысшую прочность на отрыв получено используя систему полирутан 2, для основания не шлифованного она составила 1,38 Н/мм2, а для основания шлифованного 1,98 Н/мм2.

Среди проанализированных вариантов только 4 соответствуют требованиям минимальной прочности основания - 1,5 Н/мм2 (согласно ITB 2014), позволяющей монтаж полов из массивной древесины. Шлифование цементного минерального основания является операцией необходимой перед грунтованием. Сам подбор грунта также имеет значение – в анализируемом случае только четыре из семи оправдали себя. Это грунты: Силикат, Полиуретан 1, Эпоксид 2 и Recoll Primer PU.

Рис.3. Прочность основания после грунтования, шлифованного и не шлифованного. РЕЗУЛЬТАТЫ ИССЛЕДОВАНИЙ

Полученные результаты позволяют сформулировать следующие выводы: 1. Операция шлифования исследуемого цементного основания не

грунтованного привела к усилению сцепления и позволило повысить среднюю прочность на отрыв с 0,31 Н/мм2 до 0,50 Н/мм2.

2. Удаление верхнего, слабо связанного слоя в не грунтованном основании спровоцировало более 1,5 кратное увеличение массы основания оторванного с дубовой дощечкой.

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3. У основания не шлифованного, грунтованного не получено необходимой прочности позволяющей монтаж дощечки из массивной древесины. Наивысший результат получен с грунтом в системе Полиуретан 2: 1,38 Н/мм2, а наименьший с грунтом в системе Водная дисперсия: 0,29 Н//мм2.

4. Во всех исследуемых системах шлифование основания увеличило его прочность на отрыв. В четырех системах грунтование основания увеличило прочность более чем 1,5 Н/мм2, а значит получены параметры позволяющие безопасный монтаж полов из массивной древесины.

ЛИТЕРАТУРА

1. CUSTODIO J., BROUGHTON J., CRUZ H., 2009: A review of factors influencing the durability of structural bonded timber joint. International Journal of Adhesion & Adhesives no 29: 173– 185.

2. INFORMACJA TECHNICZNA RZ-4:2011 Zalecana metoda badania wytrzymałości podkładu podłogowego uwzględniających charakterystykę pracy drewnianych elemen-tów posadzkowych. Związek Rzeczoznawców z zakresu parkieciarstwa i posadzek drewnianych.

3. ITB, 2014: Warunki techniczne wykonania i odbioru robót budowlanych. Roboty wy-kończeniowe. Posadzki z drewna i materiałów drewnopochodnych. Warszawa.

4. KOZAKIEWICZ P. 2006: Klimat a drewno – zbiór zadań. Wydawnictwo SGGW. Warszawa.

5. KOZAKIEWICZ P., PIÓRO P., NOSKOWIAK A., 2012: Atlas drewna podłogowego. Wydawnictwo Profi-Press Sp. z o.o. Warszawa

6. KOZAKIEWICZ P., MATEJAK M., 2013: Klimat a drewno zabytkowe – dawna i współczesna wiedza o drewnie. Wydanie IV zmienione. Wydawnictwo SGGW War-szawa.

7. ROMANOVSKI V., 2012: Wpływ warunków klimatycznych w pomieszczeniu na zmiany wilgotności równoważnej i wymiaru wybranych gatunków drewna. Praca in-żynierska na kierunku technologii drewna. SGGW Warszawa.

8. ROMANOVSKI V., 2014: Systemy wzmacniania podkładów mineralnych pod podło-gi z drewna litego. Praca magisterska na kierunki technologia drewna, wykonana pod kierunkiem dr hab. inż. Mariusza Mamińskiego w Katedrze Technologii i Przedsię-biorczości w Przemyśle Drzewnym, WTD, SGGW w Warszawie.

9. WOLFF GmbH 2002: Instrukcja użytkowania przyrządy PressoMess firmy Wolf, Vaihingen.

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Streszczenie: Efekt wzmocnienia podkładu mineralnego pod podłogi z drewna litego przez

szlifowanie i gruntowanie. Na trwałość podłogi drewnianej wpływa wiele czynników, a wśród nich istotne znaczenie ma wytrzymałość podkładu mineralnego. W ramach pracy określono, w jakim stopniu szlifowanie i gruntowanie (gruntami o różnym składzie chemicznym) wpły-wa na parametry wytrzymałościowe mineralnego podkładu cementowego wyjściowo o niższej wytrzymałości (0,3N/mm2) od wymaganej: 1,5 N/mm2. Poprzez dobór różnych gruntów wzmacniających dążono do uzyskania parametrów gruntu pozwalających na klejenie desz-czułki litej do podkładu. Stwierdzono, że w wyniku szlifowania oraz gruntowania można zna-cząco wzmocnić podkład cementowy. Do uzyskania wymaganej wytrzymałości podkładu konieczne jest przeprowadzenie jego szlifowania przed położeniem gruntu. Ostateczny efekt wzmocnienia jest zależny również od rodzaju gruntu wzmacniającego.

Corresponding authors: Valerjan Romanovski Katedra Nauki o Drewnie i Ochrony Drewna Wydział Technologii Drewna Szkoła Główna Gospodarstwa Wiejskiego w Warszawie ul. Nowoursynowska 159 02-776 Warszawa, Polska e-mail: [email protected] tel: +48 22 59 38 658 Paweł Kozakiewicz Katedra Nauki o Drewnie i Ochrony Drewna Wydział Technologii Drewna Szkoła Główna Gospodarstwa Wiejskiego w Warszawie ul. Nowoursynowska 159 02-776 Warszawa, Polska email: [email protected] http://pawel_kozakiewicz.users.sggw.pl tel: +48 22 59 38 647

Mariusz Mamiński Katedra Technologii i Przedsiębiorczości w Przemyśle Drzewnym Wydział Technologii Drewna Szkoła Główna Gospodarstwa Wiejskiego w Warszawie ul. Nowoursynowska 159 02-776 Warszawa, Polska email: [email protected] tel: +48 22 59 38 527 Albina Jegorowa Katedra Mechanicznej Obróbki Drewna Wydział Technologii Drewna Szkoła Główna Gospodarstwa Wiejskiego w Warszawie ul. Nowoursynowska 159 02-776 Warszawa, Polska email: [email protected] tel: +48 22 59 38 577

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Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW Forestry and Wood Technology № 93, 2016: 141-147 (Ann. WULS - SGGW, For. and Wood Technol. 93, 2016) Влияние микроклиматических условий на влажность и размеры

некоторых пород древесины используемых в производстве полов.

VALERJAN ROMANOVSKI, EWA DOBROWOLSKA, PAWEŁ KOZAKIEWICZ, ALBINA JEGOROWA Факультет Технологии Древесины, Варшавский Университет Естественных Наук – SGGW Краткое содержание: Влияние микроклиматических условий на влажность и размеры некоторых пород

древесины используемых в производстве полов. В исследованиях определено как изменяется температура и относительная влажность воздуха в жилом помещении с центральным отоплением в зоне умеренного климата. Кроме того, определено в какие месяцы влажность имеет максимальное и минимальное значения и как в связи с этим изменяются определенные свойства древесины: масса и размеры. На основании этого рассчитаны уровень и скорость изменения влажности в исследуемых образцах, а также влияние на величину изменений размеров. Для исследований выбрано 10 пород древесины наиболее часто используемых в производстве полов из массива. Это отечественные породы: дуб, граб, робиния псевдоакациевая, ясень и термомодифицированный ясень, а так же экзотические породы: мербау, ипе, ироко, тик, сукупира. Ключевые слова: относительная влажность воздуха, равновесная влажность древесины, сушка древесины, деревянные полы. ВВЕДЕНИЕ

На протяжении последних десятилетий изменились методы изготовления полов из массивной древесины и одновременно возросли требования потребителей по отношению к ним. На долговечность полов значительное влияние имеют условия, в которых они используются, среди прочих это влажность и температура воздуха в помещении (Kozakiewicz 2005). Условия в помещениях с центральным отоплением подвергаются циклическим изменениям в течении года. В период отопительного сезона влажность воздуха часто снижается до 30 %, а летом достигает 70 % (Kozakiewicz, Matejak 2013).

Особого внимания, в связи с анизотропным строением требуют полы из массивной древесины. С каждым разом все большей популярностью пользуются дощечки из массива значительных размеров, иногда шириной более 18 см, которые при выше перечисленных изменениях влажности имеют тенденцию к сильному короблению или появлению щелей и трещин (Wolski 2007). В полах, переменчивые условия влияют в одностороннем порядке с лицевой стороны, так как со стороны основания изменение влажности происходит с большим опозданием. Полы изготавливаются из различных пород древесины, из которых каждая характеризуется иными свойствами, имеющими решающее влияние на дальнейшую долговечность деревянного пола ( Kozakiewicz 2005, Kozakiewicz, Pióro, Noskowiak 2012). Породы отличаются плотностью, анатомическим строением,а так же по химическому составу (Wagenführ 2007, Jankowska, Kozakiewicz, Szczésna 2012). Вслед за этим показывают различную равновесную влажность и скорость реакции на климатические изменения в помещении (Kozakiewicz 2006, Romanovski 2012). Результатом этих изменений, видимых на полах является процесс рассыхания (усушки) досок и появление щелей. Чрезмерное разбухание может привести к сильному повреждению клеевого соединения или основания (Romanovski 2014).

Целью работы было определение реальных изменений влажности и размеров (усушка) популярных пород древесины используемых в качестве материала для

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изготовления полов. Для осуществления эксперимента были созданы одинаковые микроклиматические условия, что позволило сравнить полученные результаты.

МЕТОДИКА

Для исследований были подготовлены образцы в форме прямоугольной призмы размерами: толщина 11 мм, ширина 76 мм и длина (размер вдоль волокон) 76 мм (рис.1). Материал подготовлен из половых дощечек со сближенной влажностью, по 10 образцов каждой породы древесины. Перед началом эксперимента была определена масса образцов, с целью определения точной влажности древесины (ISO 13061 – 1:2014) и ее плотности (ISO 13061 – 2:2014). Начальные параметры исследуемых образцов древесины представлены в таблице 1. Таблица1. Исследуемые породы древесины

№ Порода древесины ( PN-EN 13556:2005) Начальная влажность [%]

Плотность древесины в абсолютно сухом состоянии [kg/m3]

Название латинское Торговое название

1 Quercus sp. Дуб 10,2 604 2 Carpinus betulus L. Граб 12,1 650 3 Robinia pseudoacacia L. Робиния псевдоакациевая 10,2 790 4 Tabebuia sp. Ипе 9, 2 969 5 Milicia sp. Ироко 10,8 629 6 Fraxinus excelsior L. Ясень 10,2 716 7 Fraxinus excelsior L. Ясень Термо 5,2 703 8 Intsia sp. Мербау 9,8 1012 9 Bowdichia sp. Сукупира 11,1 963 10 Tectona grandis L.f. Тик 9,9 566

Рис.1. Образцы использованные для исследований

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Образцы были размещены на полу в жилом помещении, где господствовали условия типичные для помещений с центральным отоплением. Помещение летом не кондиционировалось, а в период отопительного сезона дополнительно не увлажнялось. Температура воздуха колебалась в пределах од 17 до 210С, проветривание осуществлялось раз в день в течении 10-20 минут. Микроклимат подвергался мониторингу 10 месяцев. В помещении где осуществлялся эксперимент выполнялось измерение относительной влажности воздуха, а также температуры раз в день, в 12:00. Относительную влажность и температуру измеряли прибором фирмы Trotec T 200. Массу образцов проверяли каждые 20 дней. Образцы взвешивали на электронных весах AXIS AD 2000 с точность измерения до 0,01 г, а их размеры определяли с помощью электронного штангенциркуля с точностью измерения до 0,01 мм.

РЕЗУЛЬТАТЫ ИССЛЕДОВАНИЙ

Исследования были реализованы в отдельностоящем здании в 2011-2012 годах в местности Буско-Здруй (Польша). Относительную влажность воздуха в помещении измеряли каждый день в одно и то же время. На рисунке 2 представлены результаты измерений регистрируемые в течении 329 дней (среднее значение с интервалом в 20 дней). На графике можно проследить изменения влажности в течении 10 месяцев.

Рис.2. Средняя относительная влажность воздуха в помещении измеряемая с интервалом в 20 дней

Летом господствуют более высокие температуры, что способствует увеличению влагоемкости воздуха. Воздух попадая в помещение не подвергается нагреву и поэтому сохраняет высокую относительную влажность. В июле-августе зафиксировано максимальное значение влажности воздуха - 73% (единичное измерение в течении дня). Понижение температуры наружного воздуха осенью (сентябрь – ноябрь) влияет на постепенное снижение влажности в помещении. После начала отопительного сезона произошло скачкообразное изменение микроклимата в помещении. У зимнего воздуха попадающего в помещение, после интенсивного нагревания резко снижается относительная влажность и он приобретает сильные иссушающие свойства. 10 февраля зафиксировано минимальное значение влажности воздуха, которое составило только 19%. Низкие показатели влажности негативно

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влияют на продукты из древесины, ообенно из массива. Рекомендуется в период отопительного сезона увлажнять воздух до 40-65 % (Wolski 2007, ITB 2014). Весной отмечается постепенное равномерное повышение влажности в помещениях, причиной изменений является повышение температуры воздуха снаружи и на более позднем этапе, отключение центрального отопления. Описанные изменения следует признать типичными для помещений с центральным отоплением в зоне умеренного климата, хорошо иллюстрирующие данную проблематику. Индивидуальный микроклимат различных помещений будет отличаться, так как зависит от многих факторов, например, вида помещения, его местоположения, величины, использованных материалов, поверхности окон и тд. (Kozakiewicz 2006, Kozakiewicz, Matejak 2013).

Изменения влажности образцов из древесины анализировалось 289 дней. Выполнено 15 измерений массы образцов с интервалом в 20 дней. Первые 3 измерения (60 дней) были отброшены с целью выравнивания влажности в отдельных породах. На основании измерений рассчитано максимальное изменение влажности. Результаты исследований представлены на рисунке 3. Анализируемые породы древесины можно разделить на 3 группы.

• первая группа: тик, мербау, ипе, ясень термо – древесина с минимальным показателем изменения влажности ( ниже 2, 49%) т.е. от 1,44 до 2,39%,

• вторая группа: ироко, дуб, робиниа псевдоакация – древесина со средним показателем изменения влажности (от 2,50 до 3,09%) т.е. от 2,87 до 3,08%,

• третья группа: граб, ясень, сукупира – древесина с высоким показателем изменения влажности (более 3,10%) т.е. от 3,41 до 4,41%.

Из представленных значений (таблица 1 и рис.3) следует, что плотность древесины является важным, но не единственным свойством влияющим на ее гигроскопичность. Вероятнее всего, также важное значение имеет химический состав, а особенно содержание неструктурированных гидрофобных связей в различных породах древесины ( Jankowska, Kozakiewicz, Szczęsna 2012, Wagenfur 2007, Kozakiewicz, Matejak 2013).

Рис.3. Разница между максимальным и минимальным значениями влажности в различных породах древесины в период исследования.

Произведены расчеты степени изменения размера дощечки в различных породах в тангенциальном направлении, рисунок 3. Имея значения изменения

4.41

3.47 3.413.08

2.94 2.872.61

2.392.2

1.44

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

4

4.5

5

породы древесины

разн

ица

влаж

ност

и [%

]

Разница влажности

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влажности в различных породах древесины в период исследований, умножая результат на коэффициент усушки ( Jankowska, Kozakiewicz,Szczęsna 2012, Wagenfuhr 2007) в тангенциальном направлении определено в какой степени (изменит размер) произойдет усушка или разбухание половой дощечки размером 120 мм. Полученные результаты в большой степени покрываются с величиной изменения влажности в различных породах, рисунок 2. Некоторые породы поменяли место на грфике (сравнивая рисунки 2 и 3), но остались в своих классификационных группах.

Рис.4. Изменение размеров дощечки в тангенциальном направлении

Из пород древесины характеризующихся значительными изменениями размеров следует изготавливать елементы полов малой ширины. Рисунок укладки пола из древесины тоже имеет значительное влияние на появление щелей в период отопительного сезона и при его выборе также необходимо учитывать используемую породу древесины.

ВЫВОДЫ

Результаты проведенных исследований позволяют сделать следующие выводы: 1. Микроклимат в помещениях с центральным отоплением характеризуется значительным изменением относительной влажности в течении года ( от ниже 30% зимой до более 70 % летом),что оказывает негативное влияние на находящиеся в них полы из массивной древесины. 2. Следом за изменениями относительной влажности воздуха изменяется и влажность древесины, а величина этих изменений имеет индивидуальный характер (зависит от породы древесины). Плотность дрвесины имеет значение, но не является единственным свойством влияющим на ее гигроскопичность. 3. Величина изменений размеров в тангенциальном направлении древесины коррелирует с податливостью на изменение влажности. Чем древесина более податлива к изменениям влажности тем больше эффект изменения ее размеров. 4. Среди исследованных образцов наименьшими изменениями влажности и размеров характеризуются такие породы как тик, ипе, мербау и ясень термо. Таким образом эти

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

2.0

порода древесины

вели

чина

изм

енен

ий [

мм

]

Изменение размера дощечки в тангенциальном направлении

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породы являются наиболее рекомендуемыми для изготовления широких элементов полов из массивной древесины. ЛИТЕРАТУРА 1. JANKOWSKA A., KOZAKIEWICZ P., SZCZĘSNA M., 2012: Drewno Egzotyczne Rozpoznawanie Właściwości Zastosowanie Wydawnictwo SGGW. Warszawa. 2. ITB, 2014: Warunki techniczne wykonania i odbioru robót budowlanych. Roboty wykończeniowe. Posadzki z drewna i materiałów drewnopochodnych. Warszawa. 3. KOZAKIEWICZ P., 2005: Drewno w budownictwie – podłogi. Przemysł Drzewny nr 56 (06), 6-11. 4. KOZAKIEWICZ P. 2006: Klimat a drewno – zbiór zadań. Wydawnictwo SGGW. Warszawa. 5. KOZAKIEWICZ P., PIÓRO P., NOSKOWIAK A., 2012: Atlas drewna podłogowego. Wydawnictwo Profi-Press Sp. z o.o. Warszawa 6. KOZAKIEWICZ P., MATEJAK M., 2013: Klimat a drewno zabytkowe – dawna i współczesna wiedza o drewnie. Wydanie IV zmienione. Wydawnictwo SGGW Warszawa. 7. ISO 13061-1:2014 Physical and mechanical properties of wood - Test methods for small clear wood specimens - Part 1: Determination of moisture content for physical and mechanical tests. 8. ISO 13061-2:2014 Physical and mechanical properties of wood - Test methods for small clear wood specimens - Part 2: Determination of density for physical and mechanical tests. 9. PN-EN 13556:2005 Drewno okrągłe i tarcica. Terminologia stosowana w handlu drewnem w Europie. 10. ROMANOVSKI V., 2012: Wpływ warunków klimatycznych w pomieszczeniu na zmiany wilgotności równoważnej i wymiaru wybranych gatunków drewna. Praca inżynierska na kierunku technologii drewna. SGGW Warszawa. 11. ROMANOVSKI V., 2014: Systemy wzmacniania podkładów mineralnych pod podłogi z drewna litego. Praca magisterska na kierunki technologia drewna, wykonana pod kierunkiem dr hab. inż. Mariusza Mamińskiego w Katedrze Technologii i Przedsiębiorczości w Przemyśle Drzewnym, WTD, SGGW w Warszawie. 12. WOLSKI Z., 2007: Parkieciarz – podstawy wiedzy i praktyki zawodowej. Stowarzyszenie Parkieciarze Polscy. Warszawa. 13. WAGENFÜHR R., 2007: Holzatlas.6., neu bearbeitete und erweitere Auflage. Mit zahlreichen Abbildungen. Fachbuchverlag Leipzig im Carl Hanser Verlag.

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Streszczenie: Wpływ warunków mikroklimatycznych na wilgotność i wymiary wybranych

rodzajów drewna użytkowanych w podłogach. W badaniach określono w jakim stopniu w pomieszczeniu użytkowym z centralnym ogrzewaniem zmienia się mikroklimat w ciągu roku. Określono między innymi w jakich miesiącach występuje najniższa oraz najwyższa wilgotność powietrza i w ślad za tym jak zmieniają się wybrane cechy drewna: określono poziom i szybkość zmian wilgotności zachodzących w badanych próbkach oraz wpływ na wielkość zmian wymiarowych. Do badań wybrano 10 gatunków drewna najczęściej stosowanych w podłogach z drewna litego. Były to gatunki rodzime: dąb, grab, grochodrzew, jesion oraz modyfikowany termicznie jesion i a także gatunki egzotyczne: merbau, ipe, iroko, teak, sucupira. Wielkość zmian wymiarowych w kierunku stycznym drewna jest skorelowana z podatnością na zmiany wilgotności. Ze zbadanych rodzajów drewna najmniejszymi zmianami wilgotności i wymiarów charakteryzowało się drewno tek, ipe, merbau oraz termowany jesion i tym samym są to materiały predestynowane do wyrobu litych elementów podłogowych nawet w postaci szerokich elementów. Corresponding authors: Valerjan Romanovski Katedra Nauki o Drewnie i Ochrony Drewna Wydział Technologii Drewna Szkoła Główna Gospodarstwa Wiejskiego w Warszawie ul. Nowoursynowska 159 02-776 Warszawa, Polska e-mail: [email protected] tel: +48 22 59 38 658 Ewa Dobrowolska Katedra Nauki o Drewnie i Ochrony Drewna Wydział Technologii Drewna Szkoła Główna Gospodarstwa Wiejskiego w Warszawie ul. Nowoursynowska 159 02-776 Warszawa, Polska e-mail: [email protected] tel: + 48 22 59 38 630 Paweł Kozakiewicz Katedra Nauki o Drewnie i Ochrony Drewna Wydział Technologii Drewna Szkoła Główna Gospodarstwa Wiejskiego w Warszawie ul. Nowoursynowska 159 02-776 Warszawa, Polska email: [email protected] http://pawel_kozakiewicz.users.sggw.pl tel: +48 22 59 38 647 Albina Jegorowa Katedra Mechanicznej Obróbki Drewna Wydział Technologii Drewna Szkoła Główna Gospodarstwa Wiejskiego w Warszawie ul. Nowoursynowska 159 02-776 Warszawa, Polska email: [email protected] tel: +48 22 59 38 577

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Utilization of cellulose biomass by anaerobic digestion. Optimization

of microbial fuel cell (MFC) parameters. RENATA TOCZYŁOWSKA-MAMIŃSKA, KAROLINA SZYMONA, MONIKA KLOCH Faculty of Wood Technology, Warsaw University of Life Sciences - SGGW Abstract: Utilization of cellulose biomass by anaerobic digestion. Optimization of microbial fuel cell (MFC)

paramaters.). Following work describes research concerning surface of electrodes as a limiting factor of power output in cellulose-fed Microbial Fuel Cell (MFC) device. Various combinations of anode and cathode surface were tested. The highest power density was obtained for MFC with the smallest anode area and 1:1 anode-to-cathode area ration. Results achieved might suggest that scaling-up of MFC is more efficient by connection of many small units than by increasing size of one unit. Keywords: microbial fuel cell, cellulose, biomass, electrode area INTRODUCTION Cellulose biomass is the most abundant waste biopolymer in the world. Its annual biosynthesis is estimated on 100 million tons. As global energy demand has grown rapidly due to rising world populations, cellulose biomass (e.g. agro-residues and energy crops) have been gaining much attention for producing bioenergy and biobased products (biogas - methane and biofuels: bioethanol, biomethanol) (Sawatdeenarunat et al, 2015). Production of biogas and biofuels from cellulose are multi-step processes including pretreatment and hydrolysis, fermentation. An alternative approach to bioenergy production from cellulose is a direct cellulose conversion into biocurrent by cellulolytic and electrogenic bacteria strains. Microbial Fuel Cell (MFC) is a device that is able to produce electricity using bacteria through anaerobic oxidation of organic matter. MFCs are divided into two groups: mediator MFC and mediator-free MFC. In mediator MFC electron transfer from bacteria cell to the electrode is facilitated by chemical mediator e.g. methyl blue, neutral red. In mediator-free MFC the necessity of using toxic and expensive mediators was eliminated by using bacteria strains having electrochemically active proteins such as cytochromes on the outer membrane (Debabov et al. 2008). Respiratory chain redox proteins and conducting bacteria nanowires called pili allow for creating biofilm on the electrode surface and transfer electrons from bacteria to the electrode (Reguera et al. 2005; Gorby et al. 2006). Microbial fuel cell can operate on number of various biodegradable materials e.g wastewater, corn stover biomass, cysteine, starch or cellulose (Pant et al. 2009). In this paper a simple construction of mediatorless, cellulose-fed MFC has been shown. As a bacteria source we used cattle manure which has been widely used in different configurations of MFC (Zhang et al. 2015). The aim of the study was to describe the relation between power output and the surface area of electrodes what is one of the key factors of MFC efficiency.

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MATERIAL AND METHODS

1. MFC construction Within the framework of the research the simple construction MFC was constructed. 50 ml cathode and 50 ml anode chambers were separated by 2 cm × 0.7 cm agar bridge (10% agar, 10% NaCl). The anode and cathode were graphite electrodes with various surface areas as listed in Table 1 .

Anode

surface

[cm2]

Cathode

surface

[cm2]

MFC 1 0.616 0.616

MFC 2 1.232 0.616

MFC 3 1.848 0.616

MFC 4 2.464 0.616

MFC 5 3.08 0.616

MFC 6 0.616 1.232

MFC 7 0.616 1.848

MFC 8 0.616 2.464

MFC 9 0.616 3.08

Table 1. MFCs surface area [cm2] The distance between electrodes was 3 cm. The anode solution (50 ml) was 25 ml of 50 mM phosphate buffer, 0.31 g/l NH4Cl, 0.13 g/l KCl, 1% cellulose powder (Sigmacell, Sigma Aldrich, US) and 25 ml of cattle manure. The cellulose added to the anode chamber consisted of 85% crystalline cellulose and 15% amorphous cellulose and was directly added to the anolyte solution without any earlier pretreatment or solubilization. The catholyte solution (50 ml) included 100mM K3Fe(CN)6 in phosphate buffer (100mM). The anode chamber was sealed with rubber stopper. The cathode chamber was in contact with air. 2.Electricity generation and analyses Current and power generation in the MFC were determined by measuring the voltage (V) with high impedance multimeter across fixed external resistance (Fig.2).

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Figure 1. Scheme of H-type Microbial Fuel Cell and a measurement method Current was calculated from Ohm’s law (1) and power was calculated according to equation (2). Current density and power density were normalized to the projected surface area of the anode (3), (4). In order to obtain the polarization curve, the external resistance was changed in the range 50 – 106 Ω. The measurements were taken every 30s.

I =V cell

Rext (1)

P= I V cell (2)

P An=P

AAn (3)

I An=I

AAn (4)

Where:

I - current; Vcell - voltage;

Rext – external resistance; P - power;

PAn- power density; IAn- current density; AAn - anode surface.

RESULTS

One of the main factors influencing MFC efficiency and power output is electrode (cathode and anode) surface area. By changing anode area we can enhance or decrease produced power density. Wang et al. (2014) noticed that the power output per unit area of electrode is inversely proportional to the surface area of electrode. Maximum power density obtained for MFC with 28 cm2 anode was 349 mW/m2 while power density for 113 cm2 electrode was 100 mW/m2. Another research presented maximum power density of 0.329 mW/cm2 for the smallest electrode used in the study (1.92 cm2). However, the authors stated that maximum power density output is not directly proportional to the surface area of the

151

anode, but to the logarithm of the surface area (power density = − 0.0369 × ln(surface area) + 0.3371) (Dewan et al. 2008).

In our study we used simple-construction, mediatorless cellulose-fed MFC with different anode-to-cathode surface areas (table1). The aim of the study was to determine how different electrode areas of different anode-to-cathode ratios influence MFC efficiency. It was observed that the maximum power density obtained was 106 mW/m2 for MFC2 which is 2:1 surface area ratio (anode:cathode) and MFC3 (3:1) and 100 mW/m2 for MFC1 (1:1). The lowest power density (about 40 mW/m2) was observed for MFC5 (5:1), MFC4 ( 4:1) and MFC9 (1:5) anode-to-cathode surface area ratio. Similarly, the highest current density was obtained for MFC1 (1450 mA/m2) and MFC2 (1000 mA/m2). Maximum power and current density are shown on Fig. 3 and Fig. 4. The obtained results show the highest current and power production for the smallest anode surface area and when the ration anode-to-cathode surface is close to 1:1.

Figure 2. Power density as the function of the current density

Figure 3. Obtained maximum values of power density .

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Figure 4. Obtained maximum values of current density Performance of all the tested MFCs was investigated during 10 days (Figure 5). It has been observed that voltage of MFC1, having the best current production, decreased very quickly in the range of 100 mV after gaining the maximum. Potential stability of MFC with larger cathode surface was more stable, the best potential stability was observed for MFC8 and MFC9 (in the range of ± 10 mV).

Figure 5. Voltage of MFCs measured in following days SUMMARY A simple construction of MFC for direct bioenergy production from cellulose substrate has been proposed. The anode-to-cathode electrode surface area ratio as a critical factor for energetic efficiency has been determined. Various combinations of anode and cathode area

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were tested. It was observed that power output had greater values for the MFCs with the lowest anode surface and 1:1 anode-to-cathode surface area ratio. However, the best long-term voltage stability was observed for the MFC with the highest cathode-to-anode ratio. Achieved results suggest that scaling-up of MFCs is more efficient when many small units are connected into one system. This way higher current and power production can be obtained than in one unit of great dimensions.

REFERENCES 1. SAWATDEENARUNAT C., SURENDRA K.C., TAKARA D., OECHSNER H.,

KHANAL S.K., 2015: Anaerobic digestion of lignocellulosic biomass: Challenges and opportunities, Bioresource Technology 178,178–186

2. DEBABOV V.G., 2008: Electricity from microorganisms, Microbiology Vol. 77 nr. 2; 123-131

3. DEWAN A., BEYENAL H., LEWANDOWSKI Z., 2008: Scaling up Microbial Fuel Cells, Environmental Science Technology nr, 42; 7643-7648

4. GORBY Y.A., YANINA S., MCLEAN J.S., ROSSO K.M., MOYLES D., DOHNALKOWA A., BEVERIDGE T.J., CHANG I.S., KIM B.H., KIM K.S., CULLEY D.E.*, REED S.B., ROMINE M.F., SAFFARINI D.A., HILL E.A., SHI L., ELIAS D.A., KENNEDY D.W., PINCHUK G., WATANABE K., ISHII S., LOGAN B., NEALSON K.H., FREDRICKSON J.K., 2006: Electrically conductive bacterial nanowires produced by Shewanella oneidensis strain MR-1 and other microorganisms, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America nr.103(30); 11358-63

5. PANT D., VAN BOGAERT G., DIELS L., VANBROEKHOVEN K., 2010: A review of the substrates used in microbial fuel cells (MFCs) for sustainable energy production, Bioresource Technology nr. 101; 1533–1543

6. REGUERA G., MCCARTHY K.D., MEHTA T., NICOLL J., TUOMOINEN M.T., LOVLEY D.R., 2005: Extracellular electron transfer via microbial nanowires, Nature nr. 435; 1098-2251

7. REZAEI F., XING D., WAGNER R., REGAN J.M., RICHARD T.L., LOGAN B.E., 2009: Simultaneous Cellulose Degradation and Electricity Production by Enterobacter cloacae in a Microbial Fuel Cell, Applied and environmental microbiology, June; 3673– 3678

8. SIGMA-ALDRICH, 2009: Material safety data sheet for sigmacell cellulose, Product No. S3504

9. WANG X., TANG J., CUI J., LIU Q., GIESY J.P., HRCKER M., 2014: Synergy of electricity gereration and waste disposal in solid-state Microbial Fuel Cell (MFC) of cow manure composting, International Journal of Electrochemical Science, nr. 9; 3144-3157

10. ZHANG G., ZHAO Q., JIAO Y., LEE D.J., 2015: Long-term operation of manure-microbial fuel cell, Bioresource Technology, nr 180; 365-369

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Streszczenie: Utylizacja biomasy celulozowej przez trawienie beztlenowe. Optymalizacja

parametrów mikrobiologicznego ogniwa paliwowego (MFC). Opisano badania dotyczące powierzchni elektrod jako czynnika ograniczającego maksymalną wartość gęstości mocy w mikrobiologicznym ogniwie paliwowym zasilanym celulozą. Aby uwidocznić zależność, przetestowano różne kombinacje powierzchni katody i anody. Zauważono, że im mniejsza powierzchnia elektrod, tym większa uzyskana moc w przeliczeniu na jednostkę powierzchni elektrody. Przedstawione wyniki dowodzą, że uzyskanie większej mocy urządzenia jest bardziej efektywne poprzez połączenie wielu małych jednostek prądotwórczych aniżeli poprzez powiększenie skali pojedynczego ogniwa. Corresponding author: Renata Toczyłowska-Mamińska Faculty of Wood Technology Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW 159 Nowoursynowska St. 02-776 Warsaw, Poland e-mail: [email protected]

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