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68Th e n umbers er star- - ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ r n ~ ~ ~ r : ~ t ~ ~ ~ r s..- boxes on the right.

26 Th ree M ile Is la nd

06 The Sun - bu rrunh yd ro ge n i n i ts c or e

24 They a re bothantinuc lear s igns52 Me ltdow n

53 Chain reaction O55 Plu ton ium O58 Radioact ive waste e02 The US A o47 Fran ce O48 Germ any

59 Nuc lear was te &88 Hea vy water ! l

49 Neutrons (t o c on trolre a ct io n r at e) C i )

74 Reador Q

,14 Nu c lear fu s ion - nore liab le r ea c to r y e t e x is ts

54 Nuc lea r po wer - theplant ha d o pened in 1952

G e n e r a t i n g 'e n , e r g y 2Chain reaction o Nuclear waste

N u cl ea r p ow e r p ro duces largea mo un ts o l r ad io ac ti ve b y-produc ts.Th es e w as te s are d a s si lie d as law ,i n te rmed iate a r h ig h-Ievel. dep endingon ho w m te ns e a nd long-Iast ing thei rrad ioadivity iso H igh- Ievel was teine lud es the Iragm ents int o wh ichura niu m nuclei spl it, s uc h a s strontum-90, caes ium - 137 and barium -140 ,and als o p l ut oniu m an d other hea vyisotopes. Repro cess in g plants , suc ha s t ha t at Sella l iel d in Cumb ria ,rep roce ss w as te in o rd er to producen ew u sabl e lu e l.

Long- term plans ine lud e con ver tings om e w as te s into a glassy , ceramiema te ria l th at can be s t o re dundergroun d w it ho ut - in theo ry -ris k o f cont amina tin g wa ter supp lie s.

A lb er t E lnste in 's S pe ci al T he or y o l R elat iv it y s e tt he l ou nd at io ns l or n uc le ar p ow er in 19 05, byshow ing how the annih il atio n ot mass canr el ea s e h u ge a m ount s of energy. In 193 8 inG e rm a n y , F n t z S t r a s s m a a n and O tto Hah ns ho we d h ow t hi s c ou ld b e a c hi ev ed t hrough thelissio n (spl itt ing) o l u r an i um atom s bys u b at o rn i c p a nide s called neutrons.

A n eutron hittmq the nuele us of a uraniu m-23 5 atom s plits the nud eus into ligh te r nu c le ipl us mo re neu tr on s, w hi ch c an then go onin tu m to m ake more U-235 atom s sp lit.Th is c re at es a chain readion. The fra gmentsproduced in this w ay w eigh a litt le less th an theor igin al uran ium nucle u s, and th e lo s t m a ss

appea rs a s e nergy - he at andradi at io n. As a res u lt, the

l ission of l g (2 .2 Ib )of uranium can yi eld

as m uc h e ne rgy asbur n ing 20 00

tonnes of coalor 800 0ba rre ls o l o il. ~Q tz .-

'Y" O 01-, e "" ' l i: c: 5 ~ 'O l .1i ~ ' " 'O~ IC ~ .~ ~'c ~ c, ~ 'c. )00 )~ ~ o ( ; '" 00 ) -) ) VlU lU V V78% 77% 58 % 53c~ 46% 44% 97860 63073 44 289 21283 20793 12498

GENER AT IN d ENE RGY 2 69,The main types of nuclear reactor eThe va r io u s d e s ig n s us e d il le re nt m e th od s a nd m a te ri al s f or m o de ra t in g t he n ue le a r r e ac t io n andext rading the heat . F ig u re s a r e wo r ld wide and apply to c ur re nt o pe rations (MW = megawatts)PW R (pre ssu rised w a te r r ea e to r) Most wi de ly u s e d t y pe, 208 Insta l led (capaoty 19 83 55 M W), p lu s 5 1 WWER (wa ter-cooled , wa ter-m o d er a te d e n er g y r e ae t or), a So v iet -era Russ ia np r e ssu ris e d w a t er de sig n (capac it y 3 2 83 4 M W). Moderato r and coo la nt : w ate r at h igh pre ssure (t o p reve n t b o ilin g).BW R (boilin g w a te r r ea c tor ) 5 im p le s t a nd che ap es t t yp e; 9 0 insta l led (ca paci ty 7 7 8 78 M W). M o d er a to r a n d c o o la n t: w a t er t h at is a i la we d t o b oil w lt h in r e ae t or .PH WR (pressur is e d h e av y wa t er reactor) 5 im i la r t o PWR , b u t u s es h ea v y w a t er mstead o f o r dm ary w a te r a s m o d er at or a n d c o o la n t; 34 insta lled(c a pa c it y 1 65 1 5 MW). C a n u se less -e n ri c he d ar even na tural lunenr iched ) uranium fue l.GCR (gas-coo le d r e ac t o r) O n e o f the o lde s t de s ig ns , i n c lud in g C al de r H all (En g la n d; 1 9 5 6); 1 8 i ns ta ll ed ( ca pa c it y 2 9 30 MW ), p lus

o 14 AG R (a d v an c e d g a s-cooled rea c t o r; c a p ao t y 8380 MW) . Moderato r: g ra ph it e; c oo la nt : c arb o n d io x id e g a s. GC R u se s n a t ur a l uranium fue l; AGR u se s e n rich ed ura nium .LWGR (ligh t w a le r g raphit e r e ac t o r) 50v ie t - e ra Russ ia ndes ign; 1 7 i n st a ll e d in fa rmer Sov iet Union (ca paci ty 1 25 89 M W ). M o d er a to r : g r ap h it e ; c o olant : bo i lin g w a te r. T he C hernoby l reado r tha t ex ploded in 198 6 w as of tu s t ype.FB R (f a st b r ee d er r e ad or) Specia l ly de s ig ne d t o c re ate mo re plut o ni um l ue l (for reactor s or bombs) than uraniu m fuel'burned '; 3 insta lled (capac ity t0 39 MW) , N o m o de ra to r; c o olan t usually mo lte n sodium met al .

Nothanks!Alrnos t as so o n a s n u e le a rweapons wer e deve loped ,m ovem ents like Br itam'sCam paign fo r Nucle arD isarmame nt b eg an t opro t es t a b o ut the irp ot em ia l lor destroyingal l hum an li fe . L a te r , a st he d an g er s o f nue lea r Iw as te s b ec am e apparent,environm en ta l m o ve m en tscampaig ne d a ga ln stnuc lear p ow er , e sp ec ia llyal te r th e ac c id en ts a tThree Mil e Is land (USA )i,,19 79 and Cher noby l(Ukra ine ) in 198 6.

I n 2 0 01, Ge rm anybec ame the firs t majo rcou ntry to announc eplan s f or t he c lo s ur e o fa l l i t s nu d ea r p ow e rpla nt s, pro m ot in g w in dpowe r in it s place.

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70Th e n um be r s o r s ta r.:... ., fo llo w inq th e answers

':: r: refer to informationb o xe s on the riqht.

84 W indm illsC

g z ., . (a li fo rnia G'89 The war ! d' s f i rs t so la rca lcu lat o r O141 Fa lse O151 Wi ndm illO

154 Geothe rma l e156 Dynamo - fi rs t d ev ise d by

Fa raday , 1831232 The Moon O372 On the sea (ge nera ting

w a ve p ow er) O54 1 Ren ewab ie - su ch as sun,

wi nd or w av e p ow er322 A : Su n light O~!!.,B iomass377 F ran ce O

G e n e r a t i n g e n e r g y 3Tidal andwave powerThe E arth 's bi g g es t e n erg yreserv es lie in theco ntinuo us m ovem ent ofth e o cean s . T he re a re twaty pe s o f m o ve m en t: thetw i ce-dail y ri se a nd f ali ofthe tides ca us ed by t heMo on 's grav ita tion al pull ;and the m uc h lesspred icta b le mo vement ofwa ves , caused by w ind.

T id es ca n be harnesse dby a h ydroelectric p lant.W at er flow s into adammed coas ta l lagoon a thig h tide, is hel d by theda m, and the n flows ou t,pa ss in g through tu rb in egenerat ors. The b igges two rki ng pla nt, in theRanc e es tuary, F ranc e,op e ne d in 1967 .

W a ve p ow e r is s tilllar ge ly ex pe riment a l andus ed m ostly in mld -o ceanis la nd si tes su ch as Hawai ia nd th e Az o re s , whe rew av es a re m o st co ns tant.Th e tot a l es tim ated wavepot e n tial , wo rldw ide, is 2to 3 mi lli on MW - equ al t o200 0 to 50 00 nuclea rpo we r plan ts.ISL AND EN ERGY W ave sstr ike Limp et 500, th e wor ld 'sfirst com rne rria l-sc ele wavep ow e r s ta tion , on ls la y , aSco t tish Hebr idea n is land.

GGeotherma powerCo los sal p ow er is lock ed in th e h ea t o f theEar th 's c or e, b ut is u sab le only in a few'ho t spots ' - m ostly v o ka n k' reg ion s-w he re h ot ro cks ar lav a a re fou nd nea r th esur face. I n n a tu ra l g eysers , ground waterboi ls to m ake stea m, w hic h c an beco llec te d t o g en er ate elec tric ity. In o t herpla ces , t he h ot rock s are d r y; w a te r can bepumped dow n to be h e a te d , but th is is noty et v ery w idespread.

The first geo therm al p lant , atLar da rel lo, Ita l y, o pened in 1904 . Thebi gge s t, T h e G e y s er s in Ca lilo rn ia , c angenera te up to 1900 M W . Howeve r , inma ny cas es outpu t has to b e res tricte d sathat th e un derg rou nd ho t roc ks do no tcoo l too qu ick ly . (R egeneratio n ca n t ak edeca de s a r eve n ce ntu ries .) There is a lsos light no is e an d a ir pol lu tion .

T he w orld' s leading geotherm a l powe rpro du ce rs ( in ord e r) a re th e U SA , t h ePh ilippi nes , Ita ly, Me x ico , In do ne si a, J apan,New Zeal and an d Ic elan d .

-~~7~/,; I r- f 86 8,/ -"-~I; ; l Biomassl.,II1

Bi om as s cons is ts ot any" : 1 - ren ew abie organ icma teri a - l iving a r: 1 I re cent ly livi ng p la n ts andan imals , the ir prod ucts: 1 and was te s, rang in g lrom,, ) " stra w a n d p a pe r to suga r~ and m anure. E x tr ac tin g . k energy fro m b io m ass isec ologica l ly s ou nd sa1 lo ng as the b iom as s is j, I ren ewe d. F or ex am pl e, bygro w ing a t lea s t as m any~I tre es a s a re b ur ne d a sI : lue !. It has been est im atedt ha t b io m ass m e th odsJ cou ld m eet the wor ld 'sr ent ire energ y needs., .r."

GENERAT ING ENERGY 3 71

OHydroelectric powerHydroelec tri c pow e r - ha rnessin g the ene rg y of flow ing a r la lIingriv er s - a ccoun ts fo r 18 p er cent of th e w o rl d's e le ct ricit y, and 2.5per cent of its tot a l en er gy cons um p tio n. A hy droelec tr ic p lant canb e i ns tal le d a t a na tu ra/ wa te rfa ll - a s at N iagara (bu ilt in 1 89 3)- ar by bu ild ing a dam t o c r e ate an a rt ilicia l lake. The wor ld 'sbig ges t plant is the Ita ipu, on the P ara na rive r bet we en B ra zi lan d Pa ra g u ay ; c om p le t ed in 1 98 2, its ca pac ity is 12 600 M W.Ch ina 's Th ree Gorges pro ject on th e Y an gt ze rive r, w ith aplan n e d c a p ac i ty o f 18200 MW, is due fo r comp letio n i n 2 0 09 .HO OV ER DAM Hyd roe le ct ric pow er plant on the Colo ra do R ive r ,USA.

Wind power eWindm ills ha ve be en used fo r we ll ov er 1000yea rs , mo stly fo r p um pi ng w a te r a r g r in d ing gr a in.The fir s t w ind e lec tric ity genera to r was bu il t inDenma r k in th e 1 89 0s. In th e 19 20s a F ren chman ,Geo rges Da rre iu s , inven ted a w ind turb ine w ithth ree tal l, c ur ve d bla d es l oo king l ik e a g ia n t egg-bea ter ; i t c o u ld cat ch th e w ind from any d irect ion .

M o s t m o de rn wi n d g en era to rs u se huge two - orth ree- b la de d prope llers , u p t o 6 5 m (213 f t)across . They are com pu ter- con tro l led to k eep themfa c ing the w ind and t o adjus t the pitch (b ladean gle) accord ing to t he w i nd s treng th. Th ey ar eus u al ly grouped in 'w ind fa rm s ' on wi ndy r idg es a rco asts , or oflsh or e. T he tw o b ig ges t wi nd larms -w it h a bout 5000 t u rb i n e s e a c h - a re i n C al il orn ia .Theyare pollu tion -free and co st -effec tive .

solar powerAl i me th ods of energy ge neration excep tgeo therm a l and nuc le ar p ow er d ep en d u ltimate lyon th e S un. Bu t so la r pow e r has o nl y recentlybeg un to b e h arnessed di re c tly . I ts m os t c om mo nus e today IS lo r he at m q dom est ic ho t water Insunny areas. us in g r oo l- rn oun te d s o la r pan eis.E le ct ric ity can be generated in t wa m ain ways : S ol ar -the rrna l p la nt s use the Su n 's rays ,genera lly locu se d by rn irr or s . e ither d ire c tly to boilw a te r to m ake steam , arto heat an interme d iatel iquid such as oil. w hi ch ISthe n use o to heat water .Th e lat ter sys te m i s u se d in

HOM E HEAT A n a r ray o fsol a r p a n e J stpno tovo ltaiccei ls) o n the ro o i ot ter rac edhou se s in H eerh ugow aaed Int he N e the ri ands .

FARM ING THE W INDT h e Palm Sp rin gswind generators inCali/orn ia , USA .

Q : W h ich cou ntry is the wor /d' s /ea dingwind generator?A: Ger m an y, Ge rm an y has mo r e tha n 6 000M Wo f ca pacity - co m pa red w it h 2 5 00 MW in the USA -an d m or e p lann ed. E ur o pe h as nea r ly t w o-un rds ofth e wo rld 's to ta l in sta lle d w i n d g e n er a Ilo n c ap aci ty .

th e w o rl d' s b ig ge st so la r pow er in stal lati o n - aser ie s of n in e p lant s covering a to ta l of 4 00 ha(1 00 0 acres ) in th e M oj ave Dese r t, C a l if orn ia. So la r-e lectr ic insta lla ti on s us e si l iconpho tovolta ic (p hotoe lect ric) ce lls to tu rn su nli ghtinto e lec tric ity . Th ey a re expens ive but u se fu l iniso late d p la ce s - from space p rob es to m oto rwayrad io- te lephones and lon ely v illa ge s . They are alsoused in ca lcu la to rs an d e xper ime ntal ca rs.

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66..~ Th e nu mbe rs o r s tar__ ~. fo ll ow ing t he a ns we rsret er to information" ., boxes on the right.,. :)

8 In d ia - a fte r C hina andthe USA

126 Coa l l157 Tu rb in es O160 Cooling tower s 6~ 76 Batt e rsea Pow e r S ta tion

- in o p e ra t io n 1937-80:19 D: G erm any Oi85 Foss il fu e ls 4)

i62 W oo d0

i67 C oa l t he re is a lsobitum in ou s c oa l

i68 T he USA O'04 C : lo ndo n C i):37 T ru eC

:45 R eyk ja v ik, leel a nd.;;69 90 per ce nt O:94 W ood (a li o f t he o the rs ar e

foss il fue ls ) 4)'47 Ge o rd ies ( th e y c ho se his

lam ps a ve r Davy 's) e

A lmost 90 pe r c e nt of t he w o rld 's to ta l ce nt o f th e wo rld 's e ne rgy , and a t iny amo unten erg y consump tion (and ne ady 65 pe r cen t com es f rorn other renew ab ie source s .o f i ts el ect n city) co rnes lr om bu rn ing lass il Th e USA con su m es a quar te r of al lth efu e ls - o i l, coa l a r n a tu ra l g as , wo rkrs en ergy, N uc lea r pow er ac c ou nt s l or u nder 8 pe r Ice land , Ma lawi , No rway , P ara gu ay a nd1~~;~;;~~:;;::~~~=~~:~~~:::;~:~'3 t,.l ,,~ jHow a power station works, < ,, : ~ ~Coal- f ire d pow er s ta tio ns pro d uc e s te ar n t o dr iv e tu rbin es COA l-FI RED Coal is,r; ; '~ and gene ra te e lectr ici ty , C oal is grou nd up in to sma li p ie ce s s llll s n I m por ta n t e n e rgyh ;" 'd to m ake it bu rn faster. a n d i s m i x ed wi th pre-heated a ir b ef ore sou rce ,w ruch is

; : " : " . ; , . : : , ' . : : .1 1 " 1 " ~ ;fi:~~F .~~~~~~~:~:,,,~~~~::~~~,;~. .. alternator (alternatinq-current preheat the ground-up coal. condenser toc o o l t h e s t e am> ' " gen era to r) to m ake e lec tr ici ty, from the0 ( 4 Once th e st ea m ha s been H igh -pr ess u re turb ine s.ste am ~ f or red' : , < :, p a ss e d t hro ug h the tu r b in e s, i n to t h e{;'} i t i s c o ole d by a eondense r . turbine s .;..,! T he r esu lt ing wa ter is

re turned to the furnacelo r reheot in g,

S te am h ns thef a ns of th eturb in es andmakes t he m s pin.

Hol weter in {heconden se r (h eate d .by th e s tearn

le iw In g t h e t ur b in e s)i s s en t t o cooHng{a w e r s to b e c o a le dand reused .

le e la no h es on a s pot wh e re the E af 1n s us t is sp readlng ,Ho t. mo lt en (CC KS ,kno wn , ,5 mag m a, we !1 u p n e ar to th esu rfac e. se m e nmes break in g throu cn the ground to formlava flow s. W ater se ep ing (ar p u mp e d) down into th e hotror ks is re l e as e d a s geoth erm al s tea m to ge ner a te e lectn c ity .ar as hot wate r to wa rm Re yk javik 's bui id inos . Ice landge nerates the re st o t its e lew lot y In h ydroe l~c tr ic p lan ts .

Power battleA lth ou gh t he A me ri ca n in ve nt orThom a s E di so n b ui lt t he w or ld'sh rst p rop er p o we r s r an o n 101882 , h e b acke d the w ro ngmv ent ion i n t h is case , H i s p l antpr o du ce d dir ec t c u rre nt (D e)e lectr ici ty . H is r iva l Ge o rgeW estin gh ous e, u$ in g themv ent ions o l C r oa tian un rn iqrantN iko la Tes la, p ro m ot e da t er na ti nq eur re nt (AC ),

Th e a dv an ta ge o l A C i s t ha t ltsvo lta ge c an b e s t ep pe d u p a rdo wn w it h a t ra n sf o rm e r. H igh -v ol ta ge p ow e r c an b etran sm itte d O vN lon g dista nce swith l ittle loss ol pow e r, thens tepp d dow n lo r s ale use .DC cannot be tran s form ed in thi sway, and tr ans mi ss io n ov er longd is ta n ces in volve s g re a t loss esfro rn heating the cabl e ,

Toda y , v irtu a l ly al l the wo rld 'sgene rati n g p la nts u se Ies la's andWe s ting hou se 's sy s te m ,

TI IV I ES CALE~ 370 Be The fi rs t 'cno wnus e of coa l a s ;u el, . n Ch ina,> AD 915 T h e e a rhestknow n u se o f w i nornr l ls, tog n n d g r ai n in P e rs t a.l > - 1765 Co al gas IS fi rst _us ed for lig hti n g, in m in eolf ices in C umber land .i > - 1807 Ga s s t re e t l i ghungis firs t u sed , in tondon.l > - 1815 Eng lish in ventorHumph ry Da v'j inv ent s t hem iner 's s a fe ty l amp,> - 13 21 T he f ir st natura l gaswe ll is dug a t F redor ua. NewYo rk State.i > - 1855 Ro be rt Bunsenin ve nt s a ga s bu rne r .i> - 1859 The first o i l w el l isd ri lled , at O il Cr eek,P en nsy lvan ia ,i > - 1872 Th e lirst natur a l g asp ipe lin es a re bu il t i n N e wYork an dPenn sylvania.i > - 1881 An exp erim enra lhydro ele cu ie po w er plan t isbu i t in G er many. Goda lm ing,S urr ey , beeomes th e f i rs tBr itish tow n wi th e lect rie it ygener ated by wa te r -whee l.l> - 1882 Tho mas Ed isonope ns t he wo rld 's lirst ful i-sc a le e lec tricit y gene ratingpl a nt in New Yo rk ,i> - 1893 Th e o p ening ol thewo rtc 's first fu lt-sc a leh yd ro ele c tr k po wer s ta li o na t N iagara F a ll s .l > - 1904 Th e w orld 's f ir stg eo the rm a l pow e r p la ntope ns , at Lardare llo , Italy ,,. 1938 Ot to Hah n an d F ritzS tras sm an n in Ge rm a ny s p li t

Po s s il fue ls : p r o s a n d c o n s

u ran iu m at om s wi thr .eut r ons; tt us re le a ses rn or en e u t rc n s , s how m q t hepo ss ib l li [~1o t nuc l e ar c h ainreacuons .> 1941 Th e wor ld 's firstm o de rn w ind generat or isbuli t in Ve rm ont .> 1942 Th e f rrs t n u c le arr e ac t o r i n ope ratio n a t t h eU l1Ive rs ity of Ch icago,i > - 1948 The d is cove ry oft he A I -G h aw a r o il fi eld inSa udi A ra bia, later p r ov e d tob e t he wor ld 's b ig g e s t.i > - 1952 Th e l ir s texper ir ne n ta l fa s t - br eede rnu cl ear re a c to r o p e ns inldsho .i > - 1954 The wo rld' s firstnu cle ar pow e r plan t opens atOb n insk in th e So vie t un ion .i > - 1960 The fir s t s o la rpow er pla nt is b uilt inIu rkm en i s t a n.> 1967 The fi rs t m a jor tid alpow er pla nt is bu ilt in t heRance es tua ry , F ran ce,> 1979 Th e par tla lm e ltdow n o f the Th r ee M ileIs la n d n uc l ea r p o we r plant ,Pe nnsylva nia.,. 1982 The So l ar O n e sol a rpow er plan t in oper ation inthe Mo ja ve Oe ser t.~ 1986 A conv en tionalex plo s ic n i n .3 reac tor atCh ernoby l, U kra ine , c ausesw idesp re ad nud e ar pol lut lon .~ 1991 Sc ient ist s att heJoint E ur ope an To r u s la c ilityin O x fo rd adueve aeontre lred nudea r lu sio n .

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fo ss il fu e ls - coa l, oi l a nd natur a l ga s -were f orm ed mi llio ns ol years a go f ro m th er ema ins ol p lant s an d anlm a ls t ha t w e reco m p re s se d a n d c h em i ca lly changed as rock sfo rme d on to p ol them .P ro s : Fo ss il lu el s can be e xtracted - andbu rne d to g enera te hea t a nd elec tric i ty -qu it e e as ily and cheap /y , O i/ an d g as can bep iped to ref iner ie s a r p o we r pla n ts , ar ca rrled

by ta nkers. Th ey ne ed re latl ve ly li tt leprocessr ng be lo re t he y are used, an d t he yyie ld va lua ble chemr ca l by -products .Co ns : Al i lossI l l u e ls p r od u c e carbon dioxide .a 'green hous e' g as that is r espons ib le in th ev iew O T most sc ie nu st s f or g lo ba l wa rm ing,a nd p ollu tan ts suc h a s s ulphu r d io xi de(respons ib le lor 'ac id ra in ') , Bu t, ab ov e a ll,fo ssi l fu el s a r e ' fini te ' re sou rce s.

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